Topic 1: The Duties of a Christian Prince and the wars of religion in the 16th Century↩

Modern war began with the formation of the nation state but this process of amalgamating provinces and placing the monopoly of the use of force in the hands of a national standing army was itself a very bloody one. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries Italy was divided into small principalities each with its own army which was either used to defend the prince from the ambitions of other Italian princes or from the imperial interests of the two dominant powers, France and Austria.

Two quite different reactions to the wars of this period came from Niccolo Machivelli and Desiderius Erasmus. Machiavelli was a soldier, politician and political philospher who believed war was an essential aspect of statecraft and that the Prince should be well skilled in both diplomacy and warfare to defend the interests of the state. In his best known work The Prince (1513) Machiavelli even went so far as to suggest that, if it was in the interests of the state to do so, aggressive war should be undertaken against one's neighbours.

A very different viewpoint is expressed by the priest, translator and humanist Erasmus who believed that war was evil and that the Christian Prince should do everything in his power to avoid it. His most moving statement against war can be found in "The Complaint of Peace" (1517) in which the personification of "Peace" comes to Earth to give her pessimistic assessment of man's behaviour towards his own kind.

Soon after Machiavelli and Erasmus wrote, Europe was torn apart by religious wars between Catholics and the newly formed Protestant faith. Protestant states persecuted Catholics and Catholic states continued, as they had for centuries, to persecute "heretics." In France the religious wars reached a climax with the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre (24 August 1572) of Protestants after which Protestant political philosophers such as Philippe du Plessis-Mornay developed the theory of tyrannicide in the "Defence of Liberty against Tyrants" (1579). According to this theory persecuted Protestants had both the right and the duty to rise up against their oppressors and assassinate them if necessary.

In the late 16th century both the ideas of the duties of a Christian prince and tyrannicide found their way into the plays of Shakespeare. His own political views are very difficult to determine but Shakespeare nevertheless had the skill to present these political issues in a rich and stimulating fashion, most notable in Henry V and Julius Caesar (both written circa 1599).

Some of the music of the period by Monteverdi, Schütz and Josquin des Prés for example is notable for the sadness it evokes in remembering the war dead, whether soldiers fallen in battle or a father lamenting the death of his son. I will play extracts from "L'homme armé: Musique de guerre et de paix 1450-1650", The Boston Camerata, conductor Joel Cohen, Erato ECD 88168 and Josquin des Prés, "Missa - L'homme armé super voces musicales" (1480-90), DG Archiv 415 293-2, Pro Cantione Antiqua, Bruno Turner.

Shakespeare on Film

Henry V gives us a chance to see what Shakespeare thought of the duties of a Christian Prince (see the soliloquy by Henry V on the eve of the battle when he laments the burdens of his office) and the consequences of war, in this case the great victory of the English over the much more numerous French army at Agincourt in 1415. Olivier's famous film, made during the Second World war, is not only a classic film version of a Shakespeare play but also highly revealing of Olivier's own attitudes toward war. Olivier, like many celebrities of the time, was active in persuading the public to contribute to war bonds and generally in boosting public morale. His film can also be seen in this light, celebrating a great English victory of the past and carefully cutting out the scenes in the play of English atrocities (such as the killing of French prisoners of war) to show England in the best possible light vis-à-vis Nazi atrocities. If possible I would also like to show the new Branagh version (1989) in which the battle of Agincourt is shown in a much less heroic light and the scenes of English atrocities are not removed.

Mankiewicz, a refugee from fascism, shows both the appeal and dangers of tyrannicide. Brutus is shown to be easily swayed by his ambitious peers thus lessening the purity of his anti-tyrannical motives in killing Caesar. Caesar is shown to be a dictator who is popular with the people and, at least superficially, reluctant to assume the crown. Shakespeare's conservative conclusion is that Brutus's act leads to far greater chaos and tryanny than Caesar's potential tyranny, thus putting into question the morality and utility of tyrannicide.

1. Henry V directed by Laurence Olivier, Rank, 1944, 137 mins. Or Henry V directed by Kenneth Branagh with the Renaissance Film Co., 1989.

2. Julius Caesar by Joseph L. Mankiewicz with Marlon Brando, 1953 MGM, 121 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

• 1. Machiavelli's attitude to war and the conduct of a Prince in time of war and peace: Machiavelli, The Prince (1513).
• 2. Erasmus's view of war and the conduct of a Christian prince in war and peace: The Complaint of Peace (1517) and The Education of a Christian Prince (1516).
• 3. The Monarchomach theory of the just killing of a tyrant: Philippe du Plessis-Mornay, Vindiciae contra tyrannos ("Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants", 1579).
• 4. Tyrannicide in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar: Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) and Mankiewicz's film (1953).
• 5. Shakespeare's view of war and the duties of a Christian Prince in Henry V (film 1944 and play 1599).

Readings on the Historical Background

War in the 16th Century

J.R. Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe 1450-1620 (London: Fontana/Collins, 1985).

J.R. Hale, Renaissance War Studies (London: Hambledon, 1983). Chapter 12 "16th Century Explanations of War and Violence" and Chapter 13 "War and Public Opinion in Renaissance Italy."

The Formation of National States in Europe, ed. C. Tilley (Princeton University Press, 1975).

J.R. Hale, chapters on war in New Cambridge Modern History, vols. 1, 2, 3 (Cambridge University Press, 1957, 1958, 1968).

William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982).

Crisis in Europe 1560-1650, ed. Trevor Aston (London, 1965).

V.G. Kiernan, State and Society in Europe 1550-1650 (Oxford, 1980).

Sir Charles Oman, A History of War in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1937).

E. Silberner, La Guerre dans la Pensée économique du XVIe au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1939).

The French Wars of Religion

J.H.M. Salmon, The French Wars of Religion (Boston, 1967).

J.H.M. Salmon, Society in Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century (London: Methuen, 1979). On the Saint Bartholomew Day Massacre and the Protestant response see pp. 186 ff. For details of the Religious Wars see part 2, pp. 117-326.

E. Armstrong, The French Wars of Religion: Their Political Aspect (London, 1904).

H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Organization of Revolutionary Parties in France and the Netherlands during the Sixteenth Century," Journal of Modern History, 1955, vol. 27, pp. 335-51.

The Huguenot Wars, ed. Julien Caudy, trans. Julie Kernan (Philadelphia: Chitton Books Co., 1964).
Readings on Individual Responses to War

Machiavelli

Machiavelli, The Prince, ed. Quentin Skinner and Russell Price (Cambridge University Press).

Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince (Harmondsworth: Penguin). The whole book but especially chapters X, XII, XIII, XIV.

Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521) in The Chief Works and Others, trans. Allan Gilbert (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1965), vol. 2, pp. 561-726.

Felix Gilbert, "Machiavelli: The Renaissance of the Art of War," in Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler, ed. Edward Mead Earle (Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 3-25.

Silvia Ruffo-Fiore, Niccolo Machiavelli (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982), chapter 4 "War, Politics, and Rhetoric," pp. 75-94.

Sydney Anglo, Machiavelli: A Dissection (London: Victor Gollancz, 1969).

Friedrich Meinecke, Machiavellism: The Doctrine of Raison d'État and its Place in Modern History, trans. Douglas Scott (New York: Praeger, 1965).

J.R. Hale, "War and Public Opinion in Renaissance Italy," Past and Present, 1962, 22, pp. 18-35.

J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton University Press, 1975). Chapter VII "Rome and Venice A) Machiavelli's Discorsi and Arte della Guerra," pp. 183-218.

Studies in Machiavelli, ed. Myron P. Gilmore (Florence: Sansoni, 1972).

Roger Baillet, "César chez Machiavelli," in Présence de César, ed. R. Chevallier (Paris: Belles lettres, 1985).

Erasmus

Erasmus, "The Complaint of Peace" (1517) in The Essential Erasmus, trans. John P. Dolan (New York: New American Library, 1964), pp. 174-204.

Erasmus, "The Arts of Peace," "On Treaties," "On the Occupation of the Prince in Peace," "On Beginning War," in The Education of a Christian Prince, trans. Lester K. Born (New York: W.W. Norton, 1968).

Eramsus, Ten Colloquies, trans Craig R. Thompson (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1957). "Charon," pp. 113-19; "Cyclops and the Gospel Bearer," pp. 120-29.

Erasmus, "Dulce bellum inexpertis" in Erasmus against War, ed. J.W. Mackail (Boston, 1907).

Erasmus, Other Colloquies, trans. Craig Thompson (Chicago, 1965). "The Fish Eater," "The Soldier and the Carthusian".

The Complaint of Peace, ed. W.J. Hirten (New York: Scholars' Facsimiles, 1946).

The Complaint of Peace, French facsimile edition (Geneva: Droz, 1978).

Érasme, Guerre et Paix dans la pensée d'Érasme, ed. Jean-Claude Margolin (Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1973).

The Collected Works of Erasmus, ed. R.J. Schoeck et al. (University of Toronto Press, 1974).

Robert P. Adams, The Better Part of Valour: More, Erasmus, Colet and Vives on Humanism, War and Peace 1496-1535 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962).

Lester K. Born, "Introduction," to Desiderius Erasmus, The Education of a Christian Prince, trans. Lester K. Born (New York: W.W. Norton, 1968), especially pp. 26-44 on "The Education of a Christian Prince.

Roland H. Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom (London: Colins, 1969), chapter 5 "The Scourge of Princes and Prelates," pp. 126-58.

José A. Fernández, "Erasmus on the Just War," Journal of the History of Ideas, April-June 1973, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 209-226.

James D. Tracy, The Politics of Erasmus: A Pacifist Intellectual and His Political Milieu (University of Toronto Press, 1978).

John C. Dolan, Six Essays on Erasmus. (Fordham University Press, 1979).

Roland H. Bainton, Christian Attitudes Toward War and Peace (London: Hodder and Staughton, 1966).

Roland H. Bainton, "The Complaint of Peace of Erasmus: Classical and Christian Sources," in Collected Essays (Boston, 1962), vol. 1.

Wallace K. Ferguson, "The Attitude of Erasmus towards Toleration," Persecution and Liberty: Essays in Honor of George Lincoln Burr (New York: The Century Co.), pp. 171-81.

J.A. Fernández-Santamaria, The State, War and Peace in Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516-1559 (Cambridge University Press, 1977). Chapter 5 "The Age of Erasmus on War and Peace," pp. 120-60.

Roland H. Bainton, "The Responsabilities of Power according to Erasmus of Rotterdam" in The Responsabilities of Power. Festschrift (New York, 1967).

G. Ritter, The Corrupting Influence of Power, trans. F.W. Pick (Hadleigh, Essen, 1952).

Johan Huizinga, Erasmus and the Age of the Reformation (New York: Harper and Row, 1957).

John Mulryan, "Erasmus and War: The Adages and Beyond," Moreana, February 1986, no. 89, pp. 15-28.

The Monarchomachs and Theories of Resistance to Tyrants

Philippe du Plessis-Mornay, Vindiciae contra tyrannos ("Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants", 1579) in Constitutionalism and Resistance in the Sixteenth Century: Three Treatises by Hotman, Beza, and Mornay, ed. Julian H. Franklin (New York: Pegasus, 1969), pp. 142-99.

Oscar Jaszi and John D. Lewis, Against the Tyrant: The Tradition and Theory of Tyrannicide (Glencoe, Ilinois: The Free Press, 1957), chapter 6 "The Theory and Practice of Tyrannicide in the French Wars of Religion," pp. 59-74.

Julian H. Franklin, "Introduction," Constitutionalism and Resistance in the Sixteenth Century: Three Treatises by Hotman, Beza, and Mornay, ed. Julian H. Franklin (New York: Pegasus, 1969), pp. 11-46.

J.W. Allen, A History of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1928).

William Church Farr, Constitutional Thought in Sixteenth Century France (Cambridge, Mass., 1941).

Pierre Mesnard, L'essor de la philosophie politique au XVIe siècle (1951).

J.H.M. Salmon, The French Religious Wars in European Political Thought (Oxford, 1959).

Klassiker der Politik. Band 8: Beza, Brutus, Hotman. Calvinistische Monarchomachen, ed. Jürgen Dennert (Köln: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1968).

Shakespeare's View of Politics and the Military

Paul Jorgenson, Shakespeare's Military World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1956).

Shakespeare as Political Thinker, eds. John Alvis and Thomas G. West (Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1981).

Robin Headlam Wells, Shakespeare, Politics and the State (London: Macmillan, 1986), "The Just Ruler," pp. 62-90.

Shakespearean Politics: Government and Misgovernment in the Great Histories, ed. C.G. Thayer (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1983).

Christopher Morris, "Shakespeare's Politics," The Historical Journal, 1965, vol. VII, no. 3.

L.C. Knight, "Shakespeare's Politics," in Further Explorations (London: Chatto and Windus, 1965).

Tracy B. Strong, "Shakespeare: Elizabethan Statecraft and Machiavellianism," in The Artist and Political Vision, ed. Benjamin R. Barber and Michael J. Gargas McGrath (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1983), pp. 193-220.

Shakespeare and Julius Caesar

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar.

Robert S. Miola, "Julius Caesar and the Tyrannicide Debate," Renaissance Quarterly, Summer 1985, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 271-89.

Shakespeare, Julius Caesar: A Casebook, ed. Peter Ure (Londond: Macmillan, 1984). Leo Kirshbaum, "Shakespeare's Stage Blood," pp. 152-9; John Houseman, "Filming Julius Caesar," pp. 66-69; Mark Hunter, "Brutus and the Political Context."

M.L. Clarke, The Noblest Roman: Marcus Brutus and his Reputation London: Thames and Hudson, 1981). Ch. 1 "Brutus in History, " Ch. 2 "The Reputation of a Tyrannicide," and Ch. 3 "Brutus in Literature."

M.W. MacCallum, Shakespeare's Roman Plays and their Background (Macmillan, 1964).

James Emerson Philips, Jr., The State in Shakespeare's Greek and Roman Plays, (1940, New York; New York: Octagon Books, 1972). Chapter IX "The Monarchic Cycle in Julius Caesar and Anthony and Cleopatra," pp. 172-205.

John Palmer, "Marcus Brutus," Political Characters of Shakespeare (London: Macmillan, 1957), pp. 1-64.

Oscar Jaszi and John D. Lewis, Against the Tyrant: The Tradition and Theory of Tyrannicide (Glencoe, Ilinois: The Free Press, 1957), chapter 6 "The Theory and Practice of Tyrannicide in the French Wars of Religion," pp. 59-74.

Shakespeare and Henry V

William Shakespeare, Henry V.

Henry V by William Shakespeare. A Screen Adaptation by Kenneth Branagh (London: Chattus and Windus, 1989).

John Keegan, "Agincourt (1415)," The Face of Battle (New York: Viking Press, 1976).

William Tydeman, William Shakespeare: Henry V, A Critical Study (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), pp. 35-39. "Shakespeare and War," pp. 50-60.

J.H. Walter, "Introduction," Henry V (London: Arden, 1954).

John Alvis, "A Little Touch of the Night in Harry: The Career of Henry Monmouth," in Shakespeare as Political Thinker, eds. John Alvis and Thomas G. West (Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1981), pp. 95-125.

Robin Headlam Wells, Shakespeare, Politics and the State (London: Macmillan, 1986), "The Just Ruler," pp. 62-90.

Lily B. Campbell, "Henry V," Shakespeare's Histories: Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy (San Marino, California, 1947).

Laurence Olivier, Confessions of an Actor (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982), "Call to Arms," pp. 88-106.

Topic 2: The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)↩

The Thirty Years War of the first half of the 17th century is often considered to be the first "world war" of the modern era in which all of the major European powers were engaged. The territories of the German states were fought over many times and naturally this led to considerable loss of life and destruction of property. The reasons for the war were the traditional reasons of great power rivarly complicated by the newer conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism. Ultimately physical and economic exhaustion led to a stalemate and a negotiated end to the war.

A participant in the war was Johann Jacob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen whose account of the war Simlicius Simplicissimus (1689) has become a classic of German literature. Although it is highly imaginative at times, it is solidly based on his own experiences as a soldier and contains moving eyewitness accounts of the destruction wrought by the war.

Another eyewitness was the French engraver Jacques Callot (actually he was from Lorraine which was not then part of France) who created one of the most moving depictions of war ever made. In a series of engravings called "The Miseries of War" (1632-33) Callot shows the life of a typical soldier fighting in the east of France during the Thirty Years War. After showing atrocity after atrocity committed by renegade soldiers against the ordinary peasants Callot concludes with the portrayal of princely retribution through torture and execution of the miscreants.

The Swedish diplomat, historian, poet and legal theorist Hugo Grotius reacted to the Thirty Years War by developing a theoretical and historical treatise on The Law of War and Peace (1625). His intention was to codify what historically had been the so-called "laws of war" and to discover what limits the Christian religion and reason placed on the actions of men when they were fighting a war. Grotius's book became the foundation stone of modern international law.

Interestingly a 20th century German novelist has used the setting of Germany in the Thirty Years War to suggest what might have been possible if the leading German intellectuals of that time had been able to meet and discuss the issues of the day - such as war, the German nation, the German language and so on. Written after another "Thirty Years War" had ravaged Germany and Europe (1914-1945), Günter Grass's novel The Meeting at Telgte raises these issues which were of vital importance in the rebuilding of Germany after 1945. (See the reading on Grass in topic 10 for more information).

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Grimmelshausen's view of the Thrity Years War: Simplicius Simplicissismus (1689).

2. Grotius and the laws which govern a nation when at war: Hugo Grotius, The Law of War and Peace (1625).

3. Callot's etchings of Lorraine in the Thirty Years War: The Miseries of War (1632-33).

Readings On the Historical Background

The Thirty Years War

M.S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime 1618-1789 (London: Fontana, 1988), pp. 13-76.

Geoffrey Parker, The Thirty Years' War (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).

G.N. Clark, War and Society in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1958).

J.V. Polisensky, The Thirty Years War (London, 1971).

War and Society in Europe, 1618-1648, ed. J.V. Polisensky (Cambridge, 1978).

M. Roberts, The Military Revolution, 1560-1660 (Belfast, 1956).

C.V. Wedgwood, The Thirty Years War (London, 1938).

H. Langer, The Thirty Years Wars, (Poole, 1980).

G. Pagès, The Thirty Years War (London, 1970).

The International Law of War

Crimes of War: A Legal, Political-Documentary and Psychological Inquiry into the Responsibility of Leaders, Citizens, and Soldiers for Criminal Acts in Wars, ed. Richard A. Falk, Gabriel Kolko and Robert Jay Lifton (New York: Vintage Books, 1971), "A Legal Framework," pp. 31-176.

Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare: The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflicts (London: Methuen, 1983).

The Law of War: A Documentary History, ed. Leon Friedman, 2 vols (New York, 1972).

Documents on the Laws of War, ed. Adam Roberts and R.K. Guelff (Oxford, 1982).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Johann Jacob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen

Johann Jacob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, Simplicius Simplicissimus, trans. George Schulz-Behrend (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965).

Johann Jacob Christoffel von Grimmilshausen, Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus Teutsch, ed. Hans Heinrich Borcherdt (Stutgart: Reclam, 1961).

Volker Meid, Grimmelshausen: Epoche-Werke-Wirkung (München: C.H. Beck, 1984). Contains a good bibliography.

Der Dreißigjärige Krieg in Augenzeugenberichten, hrsg. Hans Jessen (dtv Taschenbuch 781).

Johann Jacob Christoph von Grimmelshausen in Selbszeugnisse und Bilddokumentent , ed. C. Hohoff (Reinbeck-bei-Hamburg, 1978).

H. Geulen, "'Arkadische' Simpliciana. Zu einer Quelle Grimmelshausens und ihrer strukturellen Bedeutung für seinen Roman," Euphorion: Zeitschrift für Literaturgeschichte, 1969, LXIII, pp. 426-37.

Dieter Breuer, "Krieg und Frieden in Grimmelshausens Simplicismus Teusch," Der Deutsch Unterricht, 1985, vol. 37, no. 5, pp. 79-101.

Hugo Grotius

Hugo Grotius, The Law of War and Peace (1625), "Book 3" in The Law of War: A Documentary History, ed. Leon Friedman, 2 vols (New York: Random House, 1972), vol. 1, pp. 16-146.

Hugo Grotius, The Law of War and Peace (1625). Extracts in Selections of Grotius' De jure Belli ac Pacis, trans. W.S.M. Knight (Grotius Society Publications, 1922), vol. 3.

Hugo Grotius, De Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres, trans. Francis W. Kelsey, Vol. 2 of The Classics of International Law, ed. James Brown Scott (Oxford, 1925).

Charles S. Edwards, Hugo Grotius: The Miracle of Holland: A Study of Political and Legal Thought (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1981), "Grotius the man," "Grotius and the Law of Nations" and "Grotius and the Law of War," pp. 1-8, 71-138.

James Turner Johnson, Ideology, Reason and the Limitation of War: Religious and Secular Concepts, 1200-1740 (Princeton University Press, 1975). Chapter IV "Secularized Just War Doctrine: Grotius, Locke, and Vattel," pp. 208-55.Christian Gellinek, Hugo Grotius (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983). "Hugo Grotius's Life," pp. 1-5; "Legal Treatises," 97-108.

James Turner Johnson, The Just War Tradition and the Restraint of War: A Moral and Historical Inquiry (Princeton University Press, 1981).

W.S.M. Knight, The Life and Works of Hugo Grotius (London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1925).

Hugo Grotius: Essays on his Life and Works, ed. A. Leysen (London: Sythoff, 1925). Law Library 341.04 L993.

Hersch Lauterpacht, "The Grotian Tradition in International Law," British Yearbook of International Law, 1946, vol. 33, pp. 1-53. Reprinted in International Law: The Collected Papers of Hersch Lauterpacht, (Cambridge, 1975), vol. 2, pp. 307-65.

Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with historical Illustrations (Harvard University Press, 1965). Also a Penguin edition

Grotiana (Van Gorcum, Assen, The Netherlands vol. 1, 1980-)

Adda B. Bozeman, "On the Relevance of Hugo Grotius and De jure Belli ac Pacis for Our Times," Grotiana, 1980, vol. 1, pp. 65-124.

James Tuner Johnson, "Grotius' Use of History and Charity in the Modern Transformation of the Just War Idea," Grotiana, 1983, vol. 4, pp. 21-34.

Cornelius F. Murphy, Jr., "Grotius and the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes, Grotiana, 1983, vol. 4, pp. 35-42.

Ben Vermeulen, "Grotius on Conscience and Military Orders," Grotiana, 1985, vol. 6, pp. 3-19.

J.C.M. Willems, "Grotius and Atomic Weapons: The Nuclear Weapon-Discussion in the Light of the Theory of "Just War" with Hugo de Groot," Grotiana, 1981, vol. 2, pp.103-14.

Peter Haggenmacher, Grotius et la doctrine de la guerre juste (Publications de l'Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales à Genève: Geneva, 1983).

Grotius Reader, ed. L.E. van Holk and C. G. Roelofsen (The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Institute, 1983).

XVIIe Siècle, October-November 1983, no. 141. Special issue on Grotius.

The World of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645): Proceedings of the International Colloquium Organised by the Grotius Committee of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Rotterdam 6-9, April 1983 (Amsterdam and Maarssen, 1984).

Charles Edwards, "The Law of Nature in the Thought of Hugo Grotius," The Journal of Politics, 1970, vol. 32, pp. 784-807.

H. Hoffman, "Hugo Grotius," Staatsdenker im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert: Reichspublizistik, Politik, Naturrecht (Franfurt am Main, 1977), pp. 51-77.

Truyol Serra, "Die Lehre vom gerechten Krieg bei Grotius und Leibniz und ihre Bedeutung für die Gegenwart," Studia Leibnitiana, 1984, vol. 16, pp. 60-72.

Richard Tuck, Natural Rights Theories: Their Origin and Development (Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 58-81.

D. Wolf, "Die Irenik des Hugo Grotius nach ihren Prizipien und biographisch-geistesgeschichtlichen Perspektiven," Studia Irenica, 1972, vol. IX (Hildesheim).

Erik Wolf, Grosse Rechtsdenker der deutschen Geistesgeschichte (Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1944), pp. 231-81.

Jacques Callot

Callot's Etchings, ed. Howard Daniel (New York: Dover Publications, 1974).

Georges Sadoul, Jacques Callot, miroir de son temps (Paris: Gallimard, 1969). Chapter 5 "Les misères et les malheurs de la guerre," pp. 271-355.

Jacques Callot, Das gesamte Werk Handzeichungen, ed. Thomas Schroder (Rogner und Bernhard).

J. Lieure, Jacques Callot. Catalog of the Graphic Works (New York: Collectors Editions, 1969). Vol. VII, pp. 653-1428.

Esther Averill, Eyes on the World: The Story and Work of Jacques Callot - His Gypsies, Beggars, Festivals, "Miseries of War" and other famous Etchings and Engravings together with an Account of his Days (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1969).

Daniel Ternois, L'art de Jacques Callot (Paris: F. de Noble, 1962).

Daniel Ternois, Jacques Callot: Catalogue complet de son oeuvre dessiné (Paris: F. de Noble, 1961).

Jacques Callot. Prints and Realted Drawings, ed. H. Diane Russell (Washington D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1975), "The Military," pp. 207-269.

Topic 3. War and The Enlightenment↩

By the late 17th and early 18th centuries several large and powerful nation states had come into existence in Europe and these states, with their powerful standing armies supported by the revenues made possible by centralised taxation, contested control of territory both in Europe itself and in colonies in the New World and elsewhere. The most important conflict of the century before the French Revolution was the Seven Years War (1756-1763) which in many respects was another world war involving Britain, France, Prussia, Austria and the British and French colonies in North America.

The intellectual movement for reform known as the Enlightenment was largely a reaction against the abuses of power by both the nation state headed by absolute monarchs and the powerful Church. An important aspect of the Enlightenment was the criticism of the senselessness and waste of warfare and the elaboration of schemes which some enlightened thinkers hoped would ensure that peace would become established on a permanent basis. One of the most elaborate plans for peace was developed by the Abbé de Saint-Pierre in the Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe (1713). Saint-Pierre might have disappeared into oblivion if the much better known philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau had not taken up his ideas and simplified them (1756). Later in the century two other enlightened philosophers Jeremy Bentham (1786-89) and Immanuel Kant (1795) developed peace plans of their own with the hope that a rational international law or a confederation of republican states respectivley would make war between the great powers obsolete.

Perhaps the wittiest and most savage critic of war in the 18th century was Voltaire. During the Seven Years War he wrote Candide (1759) in which he satirised much of 18th century life including war. The butt of his humour were the monarchs who waged war for trivial reasons and the clergy who justified war in the name of God. Voltaire also attacked court composers like George Frideric Handel who wrote celebratory music to commemorate battles such as the victory of the English and Austrian armies against France at Dettingen in Lower Franconia in June 1743 (Dettingen Te Deum 1743). In the Philosophical Dictionary (1764) Voltaire blamed religious fanaticism and intolerance for causing war and, unlike the writers of "Peace Plans" like Saint-Pierrre and Kant, saw little reason to be optimistic about the future.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Plans for Perpetual Peace: the Abbé de Saint-Pierre and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Saint-Pierre, Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe (1713) and Rousseau's summary (1756).

2. Voltaire's criticisms of war in Candide (1759) and Philosophical Dictionary (1764).

3. Bentham on international law and a plan for peace: Jeremy Bentham, "Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace" (1786-89).

4. Kant's plan for perpetual peace: Immanuel Kant, Perpetual Peace (1795).

Readings on the Historical Background

War in the 18th Century

M.S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime 1618-1789 (London: Fontana, 1988).

D. Bien, "The Army in the French Enlightenment: Reform, Reaction and Revolution," Past and Present, November 1979, no. 85.

J. Childs, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 1648-1789 (Manchester, 1982).

C. Duffy, The Army of Frederick the Great (New York, 1974).

The Military Revolution and the State, 1500-1800, ed. M. Duffy (Exeter, 1980).

L. Kennet, The French Armies in the Seven Years War (Durham, North Carolina, 1967).

General Works on the Enlightenment

Norman Hampson, The Enlightenment (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976)

The Enlightenment in National Context, ed. Roy Porter and Mikulas Teich (CUP, 1981).

The Enlightenment: A Comprehensive Anthology, ed. Peter Gay (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973).

Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, vol. 1: The Rise of Modern Paganism; vol. 2: The Science of Freedom (New York: W.W. Norton, 1977)

Christopher Duffy, The Military Experience in the Age of Reason (Routledge Kegan Paul).

R. Aris, History of Political Thought in Germany from 1790-1815 (London: Frank Cass, 1965).

S.J. Hemleben, Plans for World Peace through Six Centuries (University of Chicago Press, 1943).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

The Abbé de Saint-Pierre

Charles-Irénée-Castel, Abbé de Saint-Pierre, Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe, 2 vols (Utrecht: A. Schouten, 1713) (1981).

C.E. Vaughan, The Political Writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1915). Also contains material on Saint-Pierre: on the Project of Perpetual Peace," vol. 1, pp. 359-?; "Polysynodie," vol. 1, pp. 397-422.

Saint-Pierre, Abrégé du projet de paix perpétuelle, selections by H.H. Bellot (London: Sweet and Maxwell, Grotius Society Publication, 1927).

M.L. Perkins, "Voltaire and the Abbé Saint-Pierre," French Review, 1960-61, vol. 34, pp. 152-63.

S.J. Hemleben, Plans for World Peace through Six Centuries (University of Chicago Press, 1943), chapter 2 on Grotius, Saint-Pierre, Rousseau, Bentham, Kant et al..

Elizabeth V. Souleyman, The Vision of World Peace in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century France (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1941), "L'Abbé de Saint-Pierre," pp. 77-92

Seoux d'Agincourt, Exposé des projets de paix perpétuelle de l'Abbé de Saint-Pierre et de Henri IV, de Bentham et de Kant (Paris, 1905).

Gustave de Molinari, L'Abbé de Saint-Pierre, membre exclu de l'Académie française, sa vie et ses oeuvres, précédées d'une appréciation et d'un précis hsitorique de l'idée de la paix perpétuelle suivies d'un jugement de Rousseau sur le projet de paix perpétuelle et la polysynodie, ainsi que du projet attribué à Henri IV, et du plan d'Emmanuel Kant pour rendre la paix universelle, etc, etc. (Paris: Guillaumin, 1857).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A Project of Perpetual Peace. Rousseau's Essay, trans. Edith M. Nuttall, introduction by G. Lowes Dickenson (London: Richard Cobden-Sanderson, 1927).

The Indispensable Rousseau, ed. John Hope Mason (London: Quartet, 1979), chapter 8 "War," pp. 103-109.

C.E. Vaughan, The Political Writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1915). Also contains material on Saint-Pierre.

Etudes sur le Contrat Social, (Publications de l'Université de Dijon, 1964). Articles by G. Davey and S. Sterling-Michaud.

Maurice Cranston, Jean-Jacques: the Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-1754 (Harmondsworth, Penguin).

Voltaire

Voltaire, Candide, or Optimism, trans. John Butt (Harmondsworth, 1985).

Voltaire, articles on "Fanaticism," "War," "Of Liberty," "Freedom of Thought," "Of Laws," "Country," "Persecution," "Tyranny," "Toleration," "Torture," in Philosophical Dictionary, trans. Peter Gay (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962).

Voltaire, "A, B, C, or Dialogues between A, B, C, translated from the English of M. Huel (1769)," in Philosophical Dictionary, trans. Peter Gay (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962), especially "Eleventh Conversation of the Law of War," pp. 564-74 on Voltaire's criticisms of the Grotian tradition of the "laws of war".

W. Bottiglia, Voltaire's Candide: Analysis of a Classic, Vol. VII of Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, (Geneva: 1959).Peter Gay, Voltaire's Politics: The Poet as Realist (New York: Vintage, 1965)

A. J. Ayer, Voltaire (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1986).

H. Mason, Voltaire: A Biography (St. Albans: Granada, 1981).

Ira O. Wade, The Intellectual Development of Voltaire (Princeton Unversity Press, 1969).

Politique de Voltaire, ed. René Pomeau (Paris: Armand Colin, 1963).

Georges Mailhos, Voltaire: Temoin de son Temps (Paris: Aux amateurs de livres, 1985). Chapter IV "Guerre et Paix," pp. 188-210.

Elizabeth V. Souleyman, The Vision of World Peace in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century France (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1941), "Voltaire," pp. 111-124.

Jeremy Bentham

Jeremy Bentham, "Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace" in The Grotius Scoiety Publications. Texts for Students of International Relations (London, 1927). 4 Essays on "The Principles of International Law" 1786-89: Objects of International Law; Subjects, or the Personal Extent of the Dominion of the Laws; War, considered in respect of its causes and conseqences; a Plan for an Universal and Perpetual Peace.

There is not much available on Bentham's attitude towards peace but the following works are standard accounts of his political philosophy:

H.L.A. Hart, Essays on Bentham: Studies in Jurisprudence and Political Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982). Chapter 4, "Natural Rights: Bentham and John Stuart Mill", pp. 79-104.

Jeremy Bentham: Ten Critical Essays, ed. B. Parekh.

Douglas G. Long, Bentham on Liberty. Jeremy Bentham's Idea of Liberty in Relation to his Utilitarianism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977).

Immanuel Kant

Kant, "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch" (1795) in Kant's Political Writings, ed. Hans Reiss (Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 93-130.

Howard Williams, "Kant's Plan for International Peace," Kant's Political Philosophy (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985), pp. 244-68.

W.B. Gallie, Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy (Cambridge University Press, 1979), chapter 2 "Kant on Perpetual War," pp. 8-36.

A.C. Armstrong, "Kant's Philosophy of Peace and War," Journal of Philosophy, 1931, vol. 28.

J. Bourke, "Kant's Doctrine of Perpetual Peace," Philosophy, 1942, vol. 17 or 1971, vol. 32?

K.N. Waltz, "Kant, Toleration and War," American Political Science Review, 1967, vol. 56.

Carl J. Friedrich, "L'essai sur la paix: Sa position centrale dans la morale de Kant," Annales de philosophie politique, 1962, vol. 4.

Hans Sauer, Kant's Political Thought: Its Origin and Development, trans. E.B. Ashton (University of Chicago Press, 1973).

La philosophie politique de Kant (PUF, 1962).

Friedensutopien: Kant, Fichte, Schlegel, Görres, ed. Zwi Batscha and Richard Saage (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1979).

F.H. Hinsley, Power and the Pursuit of Peace (Cambridge University Press, 1963).

Kurt von Raumer, Ewiger Friede: Friedensrufe und Friedenspläne seit der Renaissance (Freiburg, 1953).

Kant as a Political Thinker, ed. E. Gerresheim (Bonn: Internationes, 1974).

Topic 4: The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815)↩

The French Revolution was not merely an internal movement for political democracy, constitutionalism and an end to the remnants of feudalism but it also had important international consequences. On the one hand the displaced French nobility, who sought refuge in other European countries, and the other royal houses of Europe (including the British), who felt threatened by the spread of democratic and liberal ideas, both desired to crush by force the new French Republic. On the other hand the French revolutionaries believed that they could both defend themselves from conservative reaction and at the same time spread the principles of 1789 to the rest of Europe and put an end to feudalism by military means. The net result of these two opposing forces was a European-wide war which lasted on and off from 1793 to 1815 and involved most of the major European countries. Not surprisingly the Revolution and the revolutionary wars provoked a variety of intellectual responses.

Typical of the conservative hatred for the principles of the revolution was the British conservative politician and political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke, in "Letters on a Regicide Peace" (1796-7), likened the French Revolution to a cancer or a contagious disease which would spread to other nations unless cut out or cauterised. Thus he advocated an all out war against France until the new democratic and republican institutions of France had been completely destroyed. Another opponent, one who actually fought against the French, was the German officer and military historian Carl von Clausewitz. In On War (1820) Clausewitz realised that the military prowess of the French soldiers was a result of the fervour of the new political ideology of republicanism and nationalism rather than a result of traditional military training and discipline. The success of the French prompted him to reassess the nature of war and warfighting and his writings were enormously influential in Prussia and other European countries during the rest of the 19th century.

There were also supporters of the French Revolution who opposed the use of force by the conservative powers to intervene in internal French affairs. One such supporter was the English minister Vicesimus Knox, an Erasmian who believed that the war against the French was not only unjust but also served to bolster conservative rule, or what he quaintly called "The Spirit of Despotism" (1795), at home in Britian.

The French/Swiss liberal Benjamin Constant, like many liberals who initially supported the revolution, believed that Napoleon was a military dictator who had sold out the principles of 1789. In "The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation and their relation to European Civilisation" (1814), Constant roundly condemned Napoleon's militarism. Ludwig van Beethoven was another liberal-minded intellectual who turned against Napoleon for similar reasons to those of Constant. Having originally dedicated his "Eroica" symphony (1803) to Napoleon Beethoven, in a fit of anger at Napoleon's invasion of Austria, vigorously scratched out his name in the dedication on the title page.

Three novels which deal with Napoleon and the Napoleonic wars in very different ways are Leo Tolstoy's famous War and Peace (1869), Stendhal's The Charterhouse of Parma (1839), and Theodor Fontane's Before the Storm: A Novel of the Winter of 1812-13 (1878). Tolstoy was not an eyewitness to the events he describes in the novel but he did serve in another war (the Crimean War 1854-56, see topic 5) and although he wrote his acount some 50 years after the event it is universally recognised as being one of the greatest historical novels ever written and probably the greatest novel about war. Tolstoy viewed the war against Napoleon as a great patriotic uprising of the Russian people against a foreign aggressor. Another perspective is provided by Stendhal, a committed supporter of Napoleon, who served in Napoleon's army during the campaigns in northern Italy. Theodor Fontane was a war correspondant for German newspapers during the 1860s when the Prussian state was expanding its territory and was a prisoner of war during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. His first novel dealt with the impact of Napoleon's invasion on German society.

One of the most moving accounts of the atrocities of war is provided by the Spanish painter Francisco Goya who saw the consequences of the new type of guerrilla warfare in Spain under French occupatiuon. In a famous painting "The Third of May" (1814) he showed the brutal execution of Madrid citizens by French firing squad in 1808 and in a series of etchings known as the "Disasters of War" (done at the time of the invasion but not published until 1863) he documents the atrocities committed by both sides in the guerrilla campain against the French.

Film on the Napoleonic Wars

A very long (nearly 6 hours) but definitive film of Tolstoy's novel by the Soviet director Sergei Bondarchuk will be shown in three parts. It has some remarkable scenes which develop both the "war" and the "peace" aspects of the novel: in particular, the battle scenes using the Red Army as extras (in particular the Battle of Borodino) and the sumptous ballroom scenes where the Russian aristocracy is portrayed. The film is slow moving in parts but ultimately very worth while seeing.

Tolstoy's War and Peace by Sergei Bondarchuk, USSR 1967, 507 mins (in 3 parts).
Part 1: 2hours 6 mins. Part 2: 1 hour 50 mins. Part 3: 1 hour 25 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Knox's arguments against Britain waging offensive war against the French Revolution: Vicesimus Knox, "Sermon on the Unlawfulness of Offensive War," (1793) and "The Spirit of Despotism" (1795).

2. Burke's desire to have a military "crusade" against the French Revolution in "Letters on a Regicide Peace" (1796-7).

3. Beethoven's attitude to war, the French Revolution and Napoleon: the Eroica Symphony (1803).

4. Goya's depiction of the guerrilla war against the French in Spain 1808-12: The Disasters of War (postumously published 1863).

5. Constant's attack on Napoleon as a militarist, a usurper and a conquerer: Benjamin Constant, "The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation and their relation to European Civilisation," (1814).

6. Carl von Clausewitz's view of Napoleon and the French Revolutionary Wars in On War (1820).

5. Stendhal's novel set in Italy during the occupation by Napoleon's army: The Charterhouse of Parma (1839).

6. Tolstoy's attitude to war in his magnum opus: War and Peace (the novel 1869 and Bondarchuk's film 1967).

7. Fontane's novel from the German perspective: Before the Storm: A Novel of the Winter of 1812-13 (1878).

Readings on the Historical Background

War during the French Revolution

Geoffrey Best, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, 1770-1870 (London: Fontana, 1982).

T.C.W. Blanning, Origins of the French Revolutionary War (Longman, 1986).

Richard D. Challenger, The French Theory of the Nation in Arms (New York: 1955).

Richard Cobb, The People's Armies: The armées révolutionnaires: Instrument of the Terror in the Departments, April 1793 to Floréal Year II, trans. Marinanne Elliott (New Have: Yale University Press, 1987).

M.J. Sydenham, The First French Republic 1792-1804 (London: Batsford, 1974).

Napoleon

Felix Markham, Napoleon (New York: Signet, 1963).

Georges Lefebvre, Napoleon, 2 vols, trans. J.E. Anderson (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969).

Jean Tulard, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour.

Robert B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1967).

David L. Dowd, Napoleon: Was He the Heir of the Revolution? (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961).

Louis Bergeron, France Under Napoleon trans. R.R. Palmer (Princeton University Press, 1981).

Anthony Brett-James, 1812: Eyewitness Accounts of Napoleon's Defeat in Russia (London: Macmillan, 1967).

Christopher Duffy, Borodino. Napoleon against Russia (1972).

Eugene Tarle, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, 1812 (1942).

Irene Collins, "Variations on the Theme of Napoleon's Moscow Campaign, History, February 1986, vol. 71, pp. 39-53.

G.H. Lovett, Napoleon and the Birth of Modern Spain, 2 vols. (1964).

Political Thought in Britain during the French Revolution

Burke, Paine, Godwin, and the Revolution Controversy, ed. Marilyn Butler (Cambridge University Press, 1984), "Introductory Essay," pp. 1-17 and some of the selections.

H.T. Dickenson, British Radicalism and the French Revolution 1789-1815 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985).

The Debate on the French Revolution 1789-1800, ed. Alfred Cobban (London: A. and C. Black, 1960). Part VII "The Revolutionary War," pp. 443-92.

Albert Goodwin, The Friends of Liberty: The English Democratic Movement in the Age of the French Revolution (London: Hutchinson, 1979).

Britain and Revolutionary France: Conflict, Subversion and Propaganda, ed. Colin Jones (University of Exeter Press, 1983).

J.E. Cookson, The Friends of Peace: Anti-War Liberalism in England 1793-1815 (Cambridge University Press, 1982).

Seamus Deane, The French Revolution and Enlightenment in England 1789-1832 (Harvard University Press).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Vicesimus Knox

Vicesimus Knox, "Sermon on the Unlawfulness of Offensive War: The Prospect of Perpetual and Universal Peace," (August 18, 1793) in The Works, vol. VI "Sermons" (London: J. Mawman, 1824) reprint (Hildesheim and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970), pp. 351-70.

Vicesimus Knox, "The Spirit of Despotism," (1795), pp. 137-403; "Antipolemus; or, the Plea of Reason, Religion, and Humanity Against War. A Fragment; translated from the Latin of Erasmus," (1795), pp. 405-97 in The Works, vol. 5 (London: J. Mawman, 1824) reprint (Hildesheim and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970). In particular in "The Spirit of Despotism" on the French Revolution see section IX "On taking advantage of popular commotions... to extend Prerogative and Power..." pp. 190-98; on war see section X "When human life is held cheap..." pp. 199-204 and section XVII "On debauching the minds of a rising Generation... by giving them Military Notions..." pp. 249-54.

"Knox, Vicesimus," in Dictionary of National Biography.

Edmund Burke

The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke, 12 volumes (London: John C. Nimmo, 1899). Volume 4, "Thoughts on French Affairs (December 1791)," pp. 313-77; vol. 5 "Three Letters to a Member of Parliament on the Proposals for a Peace with the Regicide Directory of France (1796-7)," "Letter 1: On the Overtures of Peace," pp. 233-41; "Letter 2: On the Genius and Character of the French Revolution as it Regards other Nations," pp. 342-83; "Letter 3: On the Rupture of the negotiation, the Terms of Peace Proposed; and the Resources of the Country for the Continuance of the War," pp. 389-508; vol. 6, "Fourth Letter on the Proposal....: with the Preliminary Correspondance," pp. 1-112. Extracts in Reserve.

Edmund Burke, On the Proposals for Peace with a Regicide Directory of France, ed. Hearnshaw (Cambridge: Burlington Press, University Tutorial Press Ltd, 1961)."Introduction," pp. vii-xxxiv.

J.G.A. Pocock, "Introduction," to Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, ed. J.G.A. Pocock (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett, 1987), pp. vii-xlviii.

Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France, and on the Proceedings in Certain Societies in London relative to that Event, ed. Conor Cruise O'Brien (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1983).

Carl B. Cone, Burke and the Nature of Politics. Volume 2: The Age of the French Revolution (University of Kentucky Press, 1964). Part 2 "The French Revolution" chapter xvii "The Anti-Jacobin Crusade," pp. 409-53.

Isaac Kramnick, The Rage of Edmund Burke: Portrait of an Ambivalent Conservative (New York: basic Books, 1977).

C.B. Macpherson, Burke (Oxford University Press, 1980).

George Fasel, Edmund Burke (Boston: Twayne, 1983). Chapter 5 "Society and Revolution" and chapter 6 "Counterrevolutionary Crusade," pp. 78-124.

J.G.A. Pocock, "The Political Economy of Burke's Analysis of the French Revolution," The Historical Journal, 1982, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 331-49.

Ludwig van Beethoven

Frida Knight, Beethoven and the Age of Revolution (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1973).

Hans Joachim Marx, "Beethoven as a Political Person," in Ludwig van Beethoven 1770-1970 (Bonn-Bad Godesberg: Inter Nationes, 1970).

The Beethoven Companion, ed. Denis Arnold and Nigel Fortune (London: Faber, 1973).

Goya

Francisco Goya y Lucientes, The Disasters of War, ed.Philip Hofer (New York: Dover, 1967).

Hugh Thomas, The Third of May 1808 (London: Allen Lane The Penguin Press, 1972).

Gwyn A. Williams, Goya and the Impossible Revolution (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984).

Ronald Paulson, Representations of Revoltuion (1789-1820) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), "Goya and the Spanish Revolution," pp. 286-387.

Goya in Perspective, ed. Fred Licht (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973).

Eric Young, Francisco Goya (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978).

Richard Schickel and the Editors of Time-Life Books, The World of Goya, 1746-1828), (Time-Life International, Netherland N.V., 1972).

Pierre Gassier, Goya : A Witness of his Times (Chartwell Books, Inc., Secaucus, New Jersey, 1983).

Benjamin Constant

Benjamin Constant, "The Spirit of Conquest and Usurpation and their relation to European Civilisation," in Benjamin Constant, Political Writings, ed. Biancamaria Fontana (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 45-167.

Biancamaria Fontana, "Introduction," in Benjamin Constant, Political Writings, ed. Biancamaria Fontana (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 1-42.

Guy Howard Dodge, Benjamin Constant's Philosophy of Liberalism: A Study in Politics and Religion, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), "Conquest, Dictatorship, and Ancient Liberty," pp. 18-51.

Stephen Holmes, Benjamin Constant and the Making of Modern Liberalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).

J. Declareuil, "De l'esprit de conquête ou Benjamin Constant cosmopolite, pacifiste, anti-militariste," Revue de droit public et de la science politique, 1919, vol. 26, pp. 471-504.

F. Longchamp, "De l'esprit de conquête par Benjamin Constant: Bibliographie raisonné," Bulletin de bibliophile, 1937, pp. 486-94, 533-41.

Kurt Kloocke, Benjamin Constant: une biographie intellectuelle, (Geneva: Droz, 1984).

Nancy A. Rosenblum, "Romantic Militarism, Journal of the History of Ideas, April-June 1982, vol. XLIII, no. 2, pp. 249-68.

Carl von Clausewitz

Carl von Clausewitz, On War (1820), trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton University Press, 1976).

"Introductory Essays" to Carl von Clausewitz, On War (1820), ed. and trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton University Press, 1976), Peter Paret, "The Genesis of On War," pp. 3-25, Michael Howard, "The Influence of Clausewitz," pp. 27-44.Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. Anatol Rapoport (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968).

Peter Paret, Clausewitz and the State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976).

Michael Howard, Clausewitz (Oxford University Press, Past Masters).

Raymond Aron, Clausewitz: Philosopher of War, trans. Christine Booker and Norman Stone (New York: Touchstone, 1983).

Hans Rothfels, "Clausewitz," in Makers of Modern Strategy: Military Thought from Machiavelli to Hitler, ed. Edward Meade Earle (Princeton University Press, 1973), pp. 93-113.

Peter Paret, "Clausewitz," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968).

Peter Paret, "Clausewitz in the Nineteenth Century" in The Theory and Practice of War, ed. Michael Howard (1966).

Clausewitz and Modern Strategy, ed. Michael I. Handel (London: Frank Cass, 1986).

W.B. Gallie, "Clausewitz on the Nature of War" in Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy (Cambridge University Press, 1979), pp. 37-65.

Stendhal

Stendhal, The Charterhouse of Parma (1839) (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

Stendhal, Vie de Napoléon (1817-18, 1836-37), ed. Michel Wassiltchikov (Paris: Payot, 1969).

Andrew Martin, "Three Representations of Napoleon," French Studies, January 1989, vol. 43, pp. 31-46.

V. Brombert, Stendhal: A Collection of Critical Essays (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1962).

R. Weingarten, "Stendhal: The Enigmatic Liberal," Encounter, September-October, 1985.

Fernand Rude, Stendhal et la pensée sociale de son temps (Brionne: Gerard Montfort, 1983).

Geoffrey Strickland, Stendhal: The Education of a Novelist (Cambridge University Press, 1974).

Gita May, Stendhal and the Age of Napoleon (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977).

Robert Alter, Stendhal: A Biography (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1980).

Henri Martineau, Le coeur de Stendhal: Histoire de sa vie et de ses sentiments, 2 vols., (Paris: Albin Miche, 1953-54).

Manuel Brussaly, The Political Ideas of Stendhal  (New York: Russell and Russell, 1933).

Henri-Francois Imbert, Les Metamorphoses de la liberté ou Stendhal devant la Restauration et le Risorgimento (Jose Corti, 1967).

Victor del Litto, La vie intellectuelle de Stendhal (Presses Universitaires de France, 1959).

Leo Tolstoy

See other reading on Tolstoy in topic 6.

Leo Tolstoy, War and Peace, ed. Rosemary Edmonds (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God and Peace Essays, ed. Aylmer Maude (Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, 1951). Introduction, "Patriotism and Government," "INtrodcution to a Short Biography of William Lloyd Garrison," "Address to the Swedish Peace Conference in 1909."

Leo Tolstoy, A Confession, The Gospel in Brief and What I Believe, trans. Aylmer Maud (Oxford University Press, 1936, 1940).

Tolstoy's Writings on Civil Disobedience and Non-violence (New York: Mentor, 1968).

Tolstoy, The Horror of War, trans. Aylmer Maud (London, 1903).

W.B. Gallie, "Tolstoy: From War and Peace to The Kingdom of God is within you," in Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy (Cambridge University Press, 1979).

A.N. Wilson, Leo Tolstoy (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

Isaiah Berlin, "The Hedgehog and the Fox," Russian Thinkers.

R.V. Sampson, The Discovery of Peace (New York: Pantheon, 1973), "Leo Tolstoy," pp. 108-67.

Henri Troyat, "War and Peace," in Tolstoy (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp.417-40.

William H. Rowe, Leo Tolstoy (Boston: Twayne, 1986).

R.F. Christian, Tolstoy's War and Peace: A Study (Oxford: Clarendon, 1962).

Boris Eikhenbaum, The Young Tolstoi, trans. David Boucher et al. (1972).

Martin Green, Tolstoy and Gandhi: Men of Peace (New York: Basic Books, 1983).

Leo Tolstoy: An Annotated Bibliography of English-language Sources to 1978, ed. David R. Egan and Melinda A. Egan (Metucken, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1979).

C.A. Manning, "Significance of Tolstoy's War Stories," Proceedings of the Modern Language Association, December 1937, 52, pp. 1161-69.

Albert Parry, "Tolstoy at Sebastopol," Russian Calvalcade, A Military record (New York: Washburn, 1944), pp. 75-90.

R.F. Christian, Tolstoy: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1969). Chapter 3 "The Sword and the Pen" pp. 39-77; chapter 5 "War and Peace" pp. 97-164.

Theodor Fontane

Theodor Fontane, Before the Storm: A Novel of the Winter of 1812-13, trans. R.J. Hollingdale (Oxford University Press, 1985).

Also see reading on Fontane in topic 6.

Topic 5: The Crimean War (1854-56)↩

The upheavals of the French Revolution came to an end in 1815 with the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France and the international agreement known as the Concert of Vienna. Although periodic revolutions disturbed the tranquility of the major states in 1830 and 1848-49 there was not a major military confrontation until the Crimean War of 1854-56 in which France and Britain came to the defense of the Turkish Empire against Russia.

The young Russian count Leo Tolstoy, not yet a novelist or a committed pacifist, saw action at the front and recorded his experiences in three short stories known as The Sebastopol Sketches (1856). Tolstoy initially is very patriotic but gradually comes to see the waste and destructiveness of war and condemns the terrible corruption of the Russian officer class who profited by selling food and supplies needed by the Russian troops.

On the other side of the front the English nurse Florence Nightingale witnessed the chaos and inhumanity of the British Army Medical Service whose neglect of the sick and injured resulted in more deaths from wounds and communicable diseases than from Russian bullets and shells. The war stimulated her to reorganise the British hospitals in the Crimea and later to return to Britain to campaign for far-reaching reforms of the hospital system.

Back in Britain the war was a very popular one and few politicians opposed it. Two who did were the liberal MPs Richard Cobden and John Bright who spoke out against the war in newspaper articles, parliamentary and other public speeches and who formed part of the earliest organised peace movement. The grounds for their opposition were a combination of religious and moral arguments (it was immoral), great power arguments (it was not in Britain's long-term interest to support the Turkish empire or antagonise the Russian empire), and economic arguments (only a policy of free trade could link countries together for a lasting peace). However, the British public were in a warlike mood and Cobden and Bright suffered for their outspokenness by losing their seats after the war.

Later in the 1850s two other works related to war appeared. The Genevan businessman Henri Dunant accidently witnessed the slaughter at the Battle of Solferino in 1859 which was a part of the struggle for Italian independence from Austria. He concluded that civilians could and should do something to alleviate the suffering of both soldiers and innocent bystanders since the armies of the great powers were unwilling and unable to so. In A Memory of Solferino (1859) Dunant called for an international relief organisation to be established and early in the next decade the Red Cross was formed as a result of his book. Although not directly involved in any conflict the French composer Hector Berlioz spent the late 1850s writing an opera about one of the greatest wars of the ancient world, the Trojan war. Rather than make an opera about the contemporary wars which were going on around him Berlioz based his story on a classical theme. I will play an extract from the opera Les Troyens (1856-58) in which Cassandra prefers her own suicide to being taken captive and raped by the Greek soldiers.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Leo Tolstoy's reactions to the fighting at Sebastopol: The Sebastopol Sketches (1856).

2. The opposition of the liberals Cobden and Bright to the war in the Crimea: political speeches and pamphlets.

3. Nightingale's observations on the hygiene and mortality rates of British soldiers in the Crimea and her proposed reforms of the British Army medical system: Evidence taken before the Commission (1858).

4. Berlioz's treatment of war in a classical context: Les Troyens (1856-58).

5. Henry Dunant's eyewitness account of the Battle of Solferino and the foundation of the Red Cross: A Memory of Solferino (1859).

Readings on the Historical Background

The Crimean War

Philip Warner, The Crimean War: A Reappraisal (London, 1972).

Agatha Ramm, "The Crimean War," in The New Cambridge Modern History,  vol. 10 "1830-70.

G.D. Clayton, Britain and the Eastern Question: Missolonghi to Gallipoli  (University of London Press, 1971), "Palmerston and the Crimea," pp. 89-119.

John S. Curtiss, The Russian Army under Nicholas I, 1825-1855 (1965).

John S. Curtiss, Russia's Crimean War (1979).

Olive Anderson, A Liberal State at War: English Politics and Economics during the Crimean War (London: St Martin's Press, 1967).

W.H. Russell, The British Expedition to the Crimea (London: G. Routledge and Co., 1858).

Rupert Furneaux, The First War Correspondent: William Howard Russell of the Times (London: Cassell, 1944).

Alan Hankinson, Man of Wars: William Howars Russell of the Times (London: Heineman, 1982).

Caroline Chapman, Russell of the Tiimes: War Dispatches and Diaries (Bell and Hynton, 1984).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Leo Tolstoy

See reading in topic 5.

Leo Tolstoy, The Sebastopol Sketches (1856), ed. David McDuff (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986).

Tolstoy's Diaries, vol. 1 1847-94, ed. R.F. Christian (Athlone Press, 1985).

Leo Tolstoy, The Cossacks, trans. Rosemary Edmonds (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968).

Other Tolstoy short stories include "The Raid," "A Wood-Felling," "The Fugitive."

Leo Tolstoy, On Civil Disobedience and Non-Violence (New York: New American Library, 1967).

Leo Tolstoy, War-Patriotism-Peace, ed. Scott Nearing (New York: Vanguard Press, 1927).

Leo Tolstoy, Writings on Civil Disobedience and Nonviolence, ed. David H. Albert (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: New Society , 1987).

Henri Troyat, "Sebastopol," Tolstoy, trans. Nancy Amphoux (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 150-80.

A.N. Wilson, Tolstoy (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

W.B. Gallie, Philosophers of Peace and War: Kant, Clausewitz, Marx, Engels and Tolstoy (Cambridge University Press, 1979). Chapter 5 "Tolstoy. From "War and Peace" to "The Kingdom of God is Within You," pp. 100-32.

Richard Cobden and John Bright

Richard Cobden's speeches on the Crimean War, "The Russian War," Speeches on Questions of Public Policy by Richard Cobden, M.P. ed. John Bright and J.E. Thorold Rogers (London: T.Fisher Unwin, 1908. New York: Kraus Reprint, 1970), pp. 310-49.

John Bright's letter to Absalom Watkin, "On the Crimean War and the Patriotism of its Opponents," in Free Trade and Other Fundamental Doctrines of the Manchester School, ed. Francis W. Hirst (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1968), pp. 320-41.

Speeches on Questions of Public Policy by John Bright, M.P., ed. James E. Thorold Rogers (London, 1883).

Richard Cobden, "What next and next?," in Richard Cobden, The Political Writings of Richard Cobden, 2 vols, ed. Naomi Churgin Miller (New York: Garland Publishing, 1973). Vol. 2, pp. 461-536.

Free Trade and Other Fundamental Doctrines of the Manchester School, ed. Francis W. Hirst (New York: Augustus M. Kelley, 1968), Part 3, "Wars and Armaments."

The Crimean War: Pro and Con, ed. Naomi Churgin Miller (New York: Garland, 1973).

Donald Read, Cobden and Bright: A Victorian Political Partnership (London: Edward Arnold, 1967). Part 3 "Cobden and Bright" chapter 4 "Peace and War" pp. 116-49 and chapter 12 "The American Civil War" pp. 218-29.

J.A. Hobson, Richard Cobden: The International Man (London: Ernest Benn, 1968).

John Morley, The Life of Richard Cobden (London: Fisher Unwin, 1903).

Norman McCord, "Cobden and Bright in Politics 1846-1857," in Ideas and Institutions of Victorian England, ed. Robert Robson (1967).

Nicholas C. Edsall, Richard Cobden: Independent Radical (Cambridge University Press, 1986). "The Pursuit of Peace", "Protecting the Peace," "War," pp. 228-90.

Wendy Hinde, Richard Cobden: A Victorian Crusader (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), "Campaigning for Peace (1849-52," "The Crimea and Democratic Responsability (1852-56)," pp. 199-256.

Keith Robbins, John Bright (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), "Isolation and Defeat, 1852-7," pp. 92-126.

A.J.P. Taylor, "John Bright and the Crimean War," Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 1954, vol. 36.

Herman Ausubel, John Bright: Victorian Reformer (New York: John Wiley, 1966).

Bernard Semmel, Liberalism and Naval Strategy: Ideology, Interest and Sea Power during the Pax Britannica (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986).

Florence Nightingale

Evidence taken before the Commission appointed to inquire into the Regulations affecting the Sanitary Condition of the Army, "Answers to written Questions addressed to Miss Nightingale by the Commissioners," pp. 361-94; "Appendix 72: Description of Diagrams illustrative of the numerical results in the Report showing the Mortality in the British Army," pp. 516-26; "Appendix 74: Form of the Medical Record Book in use in the Hospital of the Grenadier Guards," pp. 527-43.

F. Nightingale, Notes on Nursing: What it is and what it is not (Harrison and Sons, 1859).

Florence Nightingale, Selected Writings of Florence Nightingale , ed. Lucy Ridgely Seymer (New York: Macmillan, 1954). "Subsidiary Notes as to the Introduction of Female Nursing into Military Hospitals (1858)," pp. 1-122.

Florence Nightingale, Notes on Hospitals (3rd edition 1863).

I have done my duty: Florence Nightingale in the Crimean War, 1854-56, ed. Sue M. Goldie (University of Iowa Press, 1987).

I. Bernard Cohen, "Florence Nightingale," Scientific American, March 1984, vol. 250, no. 3, pp. 98-107.

Elspeth Huxley, Florence Nightingale (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1975), Chapter 3 "Chaos at Scutari," pp. 62-89; chapter 4 "Calamity Unparalleled," pp. 92-117; capter 5 "A Twelvemonth of Dirt," pp. 120-47; Chapter 6 "The Health of the Army," pp. 150-79.

Nancy Boyd, Josephine Butler, Octavia Hill, Florence Nightingale: Three Victorian Women who Changed their World (Hong Kong: Macmillan, 1982).

Sir Edward Cook, Life of Florence Nightingale, 2 vols (London: Macmillan, 1913).

Zachary Cope, Florence Nightingale and the Doctors (London: Museum Press, 1958).

Lieutenant General Sir Neil Cantlie, A History of the Army Medical Department, vol. 2 (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1974), Chaps. 1,2,3 "Crimean War," pp. 1-195 and ch. 4 "The Era of Reform, " pp. 196-237.

Soldier-Surgeon: The Crimean War Letters of Dr Douglas A. Reid 1855-56, ed. Joseph O. Baylen and Alex Conway (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1968).

F.B. Smith, Florence Nightingale: Reputation and Power (London and Canberra: Croom Helm, 1982).

Sidney Herbert, "Speech," in The Crimean War: Pro and Con, ed. Naomi Churgin Miller (New York: Garland, 1973).

Hector Berlioz

The Memoirs of Hector Berlioz. Member of the French Institute, including his travels in Italy, Germany, Russia, and England 1803-1865, trans. and ed. David Cairns (London: Victor Gollancz, 1969).

Jacques Barzun, Berlioz and the Romantic Centuryt, 2 vols. (Boston: Little and Brown and Co., 1950).

Henry Dunant

J. Henry Dunant, A Memory of Solferino. Un Souvenir de Solferino (Published by Cassell and Co. for the British Red Cross Society, 1947), into. Maj.Gen. Sir John Kennedy.

The International Red Cross Committee in Geneva, 1863-1943 (Zürich).

B. Cagnebina, Encounter with Henry Dunant (Geneva, 1903).

Gagnebin and Gazay, Encounter with Henri Dunant (Librairie de l'université de Genève, 1963).

M. Gumpert, Dunant: The Story of the Red Cross (London: 1939).

E. Hart, Man Born to Live (London: Golancz, 1963).

V.K. Libby, Henry Dunant: Prophet of Peace (1964).

Topic 6: The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)↩

The Franco-Prussian war is important because it resulted in the formation of a unified German state by military means and the collapse of the Second Empire in France. During the 1860s Prussia had fought two wars in order to bring more German-speaking territory under its control. Rather than seeking peaceful economic or political forms of association Bismarck used the powerful Prussian army to achieved his ends. The final step in the process of German unification was the incorporation of Alsace and Lorraine which was achieved through the diplomatic and military blundering of Napoleon III of France. The military defeat of France and the loss of these territories led to the collapse of the Second Empire and a new revolution in Paris and the formation of the Paris Commune.

The events of the war and the formation of the Commune is described vividly by the French novelist Émile Zola. Zola did not see the fighting in the north east of France but he was a journalist who wrote on the political events of the time. Much later he interviewed participants and eywitnesses, read numerous memoirs of the war, and retraced the steps of the French and Prussian armies in preparing his novel, The Debacle (1870-71) (1892). The result is a stunning and realistic account of the war and Paris Commune as seen through the eyes of two different soldiers, Jean and Maurice.

On the German side another novelist, Theodor Fontane was also a journalist who chronicled the Prussian wars of unification during the 1860s. Perhaps his most interesting work of this time is an account of his experiences as a prisoner of war. In Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870, (1871) Fontane describes his capture by the French and his treatment in prison. Unfortunately, I have not been able to find an English translation of any of Fontane's writings on war apart from his historical novel about the Napoleonic Wars, Before the Storm: A Novel of the Winter of 1812-13 (see topic 4).

If the French could not resist the Prussian army by force they could and did resist by satire. Honoré Daumier caricatured much of French bourgeois society during the Second Empire (1851-1870), often falling foul of the censors. When he could not comment on the defects of French society he was free to criticise the rise of German militarism during the 1860s. I will show and discuss a selection of his political cartoons dealing with Bismarck, the Prussian army and the 1870 war.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Honoré Daumier's satirical cartoons on militarism in the 1860s.

2. Theodor Fontane as war correspondent during the 1860s and a prisoner of war during the Franco-Prussian War: Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870, (1871).

3. Émile Zola's account of the Franco-Prussian War: The Debacle (1870-71) (1892).

Readings on the Historical Background

The Franco-Prussian War

Michael Howard, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870-71 (London: Hart-Davis, 1962).

Robert Baldick, The Siege of Paris (London: New English Library, 1974).

German Militarism

Alfred Vagts, A History of Militarism: Civilian and Military (New York: Free Press, revised edition, 1967). "Introduction-The Idea and nature of Militarism," pp. 13-37; Part II: The Development and Militarization of Mass Armies, pp. 155-290; Part III: The Military and Politics, pp. 293-403.

Gordon Craig, The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945 (Oxford 1955).

Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: 1957).

Gerhard Ritter, The Sword and the Sceptre. The Problem of 'Militarism' in Germany, 4 vols (London, 1972).

Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate 1861-1979 (Cambridge University Press, 1981).

William H. McNeill, "A New Paradigm: The Prussian Way of War," pp. 242-56 in The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982).

Martin van Crefeld, Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton (Cambridge University Press, 1980). Chapter 3 "When Demigods rode Rails," pp. 75-108.

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Honoré Daumier

Daumier on War: 64 Print Reproductions after the Original Lithographs (New York: Da Capo Press, 1977).

Howard P. Vincent, Daumier and His World (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968). On the Crimea pp. 165-68.

André Rossel, H.Daumier: Ouevres politiques et sociales. Prend Parti (Courtille, 1971).

Daumier, 120 Great Lithographs, ed. Charles F. Remus (New York: Dover, 1978), "Introduction," pp. ix-xx.

Oliver W. Larkin, Daumier: Man of his Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968).

Theodor Fontane

Theodor Fontane, Der Schleswig-Holsteinsche Krieg im Jahre 1864 (1866) (München: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, 1971).

Theodor Fontane, Der deutsche Krieg von 1866. Vol. 1, Der Feldzug in Böhmen und Mähren (1870). Vol. 2, Der Feldzug in West- und Mitteldeutschland (1871) (München: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, 1971).

Theodor Fontane, Der Krieg gegen Frankreich 1870-71 . Vol. 1, Der Krieg gegen der Kaiserreich (1873). Vol. 2, Der Krieg gegen die Republik (1875 and 1876) (München: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung, 1971). Another edition with a forward by Gordon A. Craig by (Zürich: Manesse, 1985).

Theodor Fontane, Kriegsgefangen. Erlebtes 1870, (1871) Hrsg. Walter Keitel (Frankfurt: Ullstein, 1980).

Theodor Fontane, Aus den Tagen der Okkupation, 2 vols. (1871).

Theodor Fontane, Before the Storm: A Novel of the Winter of 1812-13, trans. R.J. Hollingdale (Oxford University Press, 1985).

Henry Garland, The Berlin Novels of Theodor Fontane (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980).

Alan Bance, Theodor Fontane: The Major Novels (Cambridge, 1982).

Joachim Remak, The Gentle Critic: Theodor Fontane and German Politics 1848-1898 (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1964).

Charlotte Jolles, Theodor Fontane (Stuttgart, J.B. Metzlersche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1983). Bibliography on period as war correspondent p. 49. On Before the Storm , pp. 60-61.

Harry E. Cartland, "The Prussian Officiers in Fontane's Novels: A Historical Perspective," Germanic Review, 1977, vol. 52, pp. 183-93.

Adelheid Bosshart, Theodor Fontanes historishe Romane (1957).

Arthur Davis, "Fontane as a Prophet of German Political Life," Modern Language Notes, 1933, 48, pp. 449-52.

Arthur Davis, "Theodor Fontane's Relation to German Conservative Forces during the Period 1849-1870," Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 1936, vol. 35, pp. 259-70.

Kenneth Attwood, Fontane und das Preusstum (Berlin: Haude und Spenersche, 1970).

Walter Mueller-Seidel, Theodor Fontane: Soziale Romankunst in Deutschland (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1975).

Hermann Frick, "Theodor Fontane's Kriegsgefangenschaft 1870. Quellenmässig dargestellt," in Der Bär von Berlin, 1955, 5, pp. 53-73.

Pierre Poisy, "Un grand romancier Allemand, Theodor Fontane, prisonnier de guerre en Saintonge (1870)," in Bulletin de la Société des Antiquaires de l'Ouest des Musees de Poitiers, 4e trimestre de 1970, 4 serie, pp. 629-41.

Joohan Van der Zande, "Theodor Fontane and the Study of History," Clio, Spring 1987, vol. 16, pp. 221-33.

Émile Zola

Émile Zola, The Debacle (1870-71), trans. Leonard Tancock (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).

Zola, ed. Jean et Hélène Adhémar et al. (Collection Génies et Réalitiés, Hachette, 1969). Marcel Thomas, "Le journaliste politique," pp. 71-85.

Émile Zola: A Selective Analytical Bibliography, ed. Brian Nelson (Grant and Cutler, 1982). "La Débâcle," pp. 87-88.

Henri Manceau, "Sur les chemins ardennais de La Débâcle," in Europe, 1952, no. 83-4, pp. 136-48.

Gianni Nicoletti, "Zola e i militari," in Saggi e idee di litteratura francese (Bari: Adriatica, 1965), pp. 259-74.

Helmuth Petriconi, "La Débâcle" in Das Reich des Untergangs (Hamburg: Hoffman und Campe, 1958), pp. 37-66.

A.W. Raitt, "Émile Zola (1846-1902): From La Débâcle" in Life and Letters on France: III The 19th Century (London: Nelson, 1965), pp. 127-39.

Claude Digeon, La crise allemande de la pensée française, 1870-1914 (PUF, 1959).

David S. Gross, "Émile Zola as Political Reporter in 1871. What he said and what he had to say," Literature and History, Spring 1978, 7, pp. 34-47.

Zola journalist, ed. Henri Mitterand (Paris: Armand Collin, 1962).

Graham King, Garden of Zola: Émile Zola and his Novels for English Readers (London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1978), pp. 288-96.

Helen B. Rufener, Biography of a War Novel: Zola's La Débâcle (New York: King's Crown Press, 1920).

Topic 7: War, Empire and the Arms Race, 1889-1910: the Boer War (1899-1902) and Organised Pacifism↩

The 25 years before the outbreak of the First World War was a period of increased international tensions which revolved around the naval arms race and the scramble for territory/colonies in the Third World. Not surprisingly many people reacted to these developments by participating in organised peace associations, particularly in Germany where the position of the military since the wars of unification in the 1860s and 1870 was especially powerful. Two of the most important figures in the German peace movement were the novelist Bertha von Suttner and the bookseller and publisher Alfred Fried. Suttner's novel Die Waffen nieder! (1889) ("Throw down your weapons") and Fried's Handbook of the Peace Movement (1905) were particularly influential. One of Suttner's greatest successes was to influence the wealthy Swedish chemist and munitions manufacturer, Alfred Nobel, to establish a Nobel Peace Prize with his estate.

Also in this period we see a concern by sociologists to explain the rise of a politically powerful "military-industrial complex" after all the signs of nineteenth-century economic development suggested to them the withering away of the military and the predominance of peaceful free trade and industry. Herbert Spencer, in several essays in Facts and Comments (1902), and Gustave de Molinari, in Grandeur and décadence de la guerre (1898), were two leading liberals who reacted to the arms race with considerable pessimism. Another sociologist, the Polish banker Jean de Bloch, carefully studied the technological changes in weaponry introduced during the late 19th century and made some very pessimistic but highly accurate predictions about the destructiveness of The Future of War (1899). Bloch's book so concerned the Tsar of Russia that he helped organise the Hague Peace Conferences. Nothing much came of the conferences and Bloch did not live to see the accuracy of his predictions in 1914-18.

Like the composer Hector Berlioz who, in the war-torn 1850s turned to the classical Greek story of the Trojan War, the British artist Aubrey Beardsley also expressed his concern in classical form. His illustrations to a new translation of Aristophanes play Lysistrata (1896, but first performed in 411 BC) about Greek woman who attempt to end a war by refusing to have sex with their warrior husbands, are not only excellent examples of Victorian eroticism but also a powerful political statement.

In the scramble to divide the Third World into European empires many small-scale scirmishes took place. These conflicts antagonised the great powers of Europe but were not a real threat to their security as long as they remained peripheral, which they did up until 1914. The Boer War (1899-1902) in South Africa is a good example of the kind of war which was taking place at the time. The Boers, Dutch settlers who had gone to South Africa in the 16th century, were reluctant to submit to British control and attempted to establish a separate and independent Boer republic. To prevent them doing so the British sent troops (including Australian troops) to crush the uprising. The conflict developed along lines that would become familiar to the Americans in Vietnam - the Boers adopted guerrilla tactics, making it difficult for the British to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants, thus forcing the British to set up "concentration camps" in order to isolate the one from the other. The film Breaker Morant (1980) is about an Australian soldier in South Africa who adopts the same tactics as the Boer guerrillas (also like Colonel Kurz in Coppolla's film about Vietnam Apocalypse Now) but is court martialled and executed by the British for atrocities. The film, whilst anti-British, clearly shows the moral dilemma faced by imperial forces trying to suppress a popular revolt.

There are two very different eyewitness accounts of the Boer War which are worth looking at. Rudyard Kipling was a confirmed imperialist who supported British imperial policy in India and South Africa. He visited South Africa many times and wrote articles for British newspapers on the conflict as well as short stories about soldiers who had served in South Africa and the thrill of life in the Royal Navy. His short stories on South Africa and the Navy are collected in a volume which first appeared in 1904, Traffics and Discoveries.

The other eyewitness could not be more different from Kipling. The left liberal John Hobson was a harsh critic of British imperial policy and he visited South Africa to write for the Manchester Guardian newspaper. His experience in South Africa stimulated him to analyse the system of imperialism which had led Britian into the war against the Boers in the first place. His analysis of imperialism, Imperialism: A Study (1902), based upon the case of South Africa, has been enormously influential.

The war in South Africa was proof to some such as Baden Powell (and strongly supported by Kipling) that the average British young man was not capable of using a rifle or surviving in the bush unaided. Baden-Powell dreamed of a system of quasi-military training for youth which would remedy this problem and thus make Britian truly ready to face a future war, either at home or in the empire. The Boy Scout movement which he inspired and helped found was the mechanism he hoped would achieve this and the Scouting for Boys (1908) which he wrote contains his philosophy of paramilitary training based upon the lessons of the Boer War.

Two other works in this period are of interest: Norman Angell's best-seller plea for peace in which he argued that the apparent gains of war were in fact The Illusion of War (1909) and the great American humorist and critic Mark Twain who wrote several short pieces in reaction and disgust to British imperialism in South Africa and American imperialism in the Phillipines and Cuba. His "The War Prayer" (1904-5) is particularly scathing of religion in the Erasmian tradition.

Film about the Boer War

Bruce Beresford, Breaker Morant (1980), South Australian Film Corporation, 107 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Choose one of the following topics to read:

1. The pacifist novelist Bertha von Suttner: Die Waffen nieder! (1889).

2. Alfred Nobel and the Peace Prize.

3. Aubrey Beardsley's illustrations for the classical Greek attack on war: Aristophanes, Lysystrata (1896).

4. Gustave de Molinari's radical liberal critique of war: Grandeur at décadance de la guerre (1898).

5. Jean de Bloch's predictions of the destructiveness of the next war: The Future of War (1899).

6. Mark Twain on "the damned human race": "The Chronicle of Young Satan" (1900) and "The War Prayer" (1904-5).

7. The sociology of militarism: Herbert Spencer's essays on "Rebarbarization" and "Regimentation" and "Imperialism and Slavery" (1902)

8. John A. Hobson's liberal journalism and critique of empire: Imperialism: A Study (1902).

9. Rudyard Kipling's short stories about war and empire: Traffics and Discoveries (1904).

10. A key figure in the German peace movement: Alfred Hermann Fried's Handbuch der Friedensbewegung (1905).

11. Lord Baden-Powell and the scouting movement: Scouting for Boys (1908).

12. Norman Angell and the illusion of war: The Illusion of War (1909).

13. Military justice: Bruce Beresford's film of Breaker Morant (1980).

Readings on the Historical Background

The Arms Race

Theodore S. Hamerow, The Birth of a New Europe: State and Society in the Nineteenth-Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983), "The System of Warfare," pp. 363-88.

William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000 (University of Chicago Press, 1982), "Intensified Military-Industrial Interaction, 1884-1914," pp. 262-306.

The Boer War and British Imperialism

Richard Koebner and Helmut Dan Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significdance of a Political Word, 1840-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1964).

B. Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa, 1895-1914 (1968).

The Theory of Capitalist Imperialism, ed. D.K. Fieldhouse (London: Longman, Green, 1967).

D.K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire 1830-1914 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976).

Byron Farwell, The Boer War (London: Allen Lane, 1977).

Denis Judd, The Forgotten War: Australian Involvement in the South African Conflict of 1899-1902 (Melbourne University Press, 1979).

Edgar Holt, The Boer War (London: Putnam, 1958).

The Oxford History of South Africa, ed. Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, vol. 2 "South Africa 1870-1966" (Oxford: Clarendon, 1971).

Peace Movements

Ian Frederick Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 1763-1964 (Oxford University Press, 1966).

A.C.F. Beales, The History of Peace: A Short Account of the Organized Movements for International Peace (London, 1931).

Peter Brock, Pacifism in Europe to 1914 (Princeton University Press, 1972).

Roger Chickering, "The Peace Movement and the Religious Community in Germany, 1900-1914," Church History, 1969, vol. 38, pp. 300-11.

Roger Chickering, Imperial Germany and a World Without War: The Peace Movement and German Society 1892-1914 (Princeton University Press, 1975).

Sandi E. Cooper, "Liberal Internationalists before World War I," Peace and Change, 1973, vol. 1, pp. 11-19.

F.S.L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe, 1815-1914 (Leyden, 1963).

A.J.A. Morris, "The English Radicals' Campaign for Disarmament and the Hague Conference of 1907," Journal of Modern History, 1971, vol. 43, no. 367-93.

A.J.A. Morris, Radicalism Against War, 1906-1914: The Advocacy of Peace and Retrenchment (London, 1972).

Die Friedensbewegung: Organisierter Pazifismus in Deutschland, Österreich und in der Schweiz, ed. Helmut Donat und Karl Holl) (Düsseldorf: ECON Taschenbuch Verlag, 1983).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Bertha von Suttner

Memoirs of Bertha von Suttner: The Records of an Eventful Life, 2 vols. (Boston and London, 1910).

Bertha von Suttner, Die Waffen nieder! (1889).

Bertha von Suttner, Die Waffen nieder!: Ausgewählte Texte, ed. Klaus Mannhardt and Winfried Schwamborn (Köln: Pahl-Rugenstein, 1978).

Bertha von Suttner, Rüstung und Überrüstung (1909).

Bertha von Suttner: Kämpferin für den Frieden, ed. Gisela Brinkler-Gabler (Frankfurt-am-Main: Fischer, 1982).

Irwin Abrams, "Bertha von Suttner and the Nobel Peace Prize," Journal of Central European Affairs, 1962-3, vol. 22, pp. 286-307.

Caroline E. Playne, Bertha von Suttner and the Struggle to Avert the World War (London, 1936).

P.B. Wiener, "Bertha von Suttner and the Political Novel," in Essays in German Lnaguage, Culture and Society, ed. Siegbert S. Prawer, R. Hinton Thomas, and Leonard Foster (London, 1969), pp. 160-76.

Ann Tizia Leitich, "Bertha von Suttner," Grosse Oesterreicher (Vienna, 1957, vol. X, pp. 66-75.

Frauen gegen den Krieg, ed. Gisela Brinker-Gabler (Frankfurt-am-Main: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1980).

B.B. Kempf, Bertha von Suttner: Eine Frau kämpft für den Frieden (Freiburg, 1979).

Alfred Nobel and the Nobel Peace Prize

Oscar J. Falnes, Norway and the Nobel Peace Prize (New Ypork, 1967).

Tony Gray, Champions of Peace .

Aubrey Beardsley

The Lysistrata of Aristophanes, illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley (1896) (London: Academy Editions, 1973).

The Best of Beardsley, ed. R.A. Walker (London: Bodley Heqad, 1948).

Miriam J. Benkovitz, Aubrey Beardsley: An Account of His Life (1981).

Kenneth Clark, Best of Beardsley (1979).

Gustave de Molinari

Gustave de Molinari, Ultima verba. Mon dernier ouvrage (Paris: V. Giard et E. Brière, 1911). "Déclaration hypothétique de la Conférence de La Haye," "Guerre et tarifs," "La Révolution silencieuse. La guerre."

Gustave de Molinari, Grandeur et décadence de la guerre (Paris: Guillaumin, 1898).

See Molinari's edition of the Abbé de Saint-Pierre's peace project in topic 3.

David M. Hart, "Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-statist Liberal Tradition," 3 parts in Journal of Libertarian Studies, 1981-2, vol. 5, no. 3 and 4, and vol. 6, no. 1.

Jean de Bloch

Jean de Bloch, The Future of War in its Technical, Economic and Political Relations, (1899) trans. R.C. Long with a conversation with the author by W.T. Stead, and an introduction by Edwin D. Stead (Boston: The World Peace Foundation, 1914).

Jean de Bloch, La guerre, 6 vols (Paris 1898-1900).

Jean de Bloch, "South Africa and Europe," The North American Review, April 1902, vol. 174, no. 4, pp. 489-504.

Mark Twain

Mark Twain, A Pen Warmed-Up in Hell: Mark Twain in Protest, ed. Frederick Anderson (New York: Harper, 1979). Section "On War" pp. 15-111 esepecially "The Chronicle of Young Satan" and "The War Prayer."

Mark Twain, The War Prayer, with drawings by John Groth (New York: Harper and Row, 1971).

Mark Twain on the Damned Human Race, ed. Janet Smith (New York: Hill and Wang, 1962).

Mark Twain, King Leopold's Soliloquy (1905).

Mark Twain's essays on wars of the period: "To a Person Sitting in Darkness" (1901) on the war in China; "The War Prayer," "Battle Hymn of the Republic (Brought Down to Date)," "As Regards Patriotism," on the war in South Africa and the Spanish-American War.

Robert Giddings, "Mark Twain and King Leopold of the Belgians," in Mark Twain: A Sumptuous Variety, ed. Robert Giddings (London: Vision Press, 1985), pp. 199-221.

The Complete Essays of Mark Twain, ed. Charles Neider (New York: Doubleday, 1963).

Herbert Spencer

Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ed. Stanislav Andreski (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1969). "The Militant Type of Society," "The Industrial Type of Society," pp. 499-571.

Herbert Spencer, "Re-Barbarisation," and "Regimentation," pp. 122-41 and "Imperialism and Slavery" pp. 112-121 in Facts and Comments (London: Williams and Norgate, 1902).

David Wiltshire, The Social and Political Thought of Herbert Spencer (Oxford University Press, 1978). "'Militant' and 'Industrial' Society," pp. 243-56.

J.D.Y. Peel, Herbert Spencer: The Evolution of a Sociologist (London: Heinemann, 1971).

John A Hobson

J.A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study (1902), ed. Philip Siegelman (Ann Arbor: University Of Michigan Press, 1965).

J.A. Hobson, "Imperialism," Contemporary Review, March 1899.

J.A. Hobson, "Capitalism and Imperialism in South Africa," Contemporary Review, March 1899, vol. 77, pp. 1-17.

J.A. Hobson, The War in South Africa: Its Causes and Effects (London: James Nisbet and Co., 1900, second edition). Originally published as letters in the Manchester Guardian and the Speaker.

J.A. Hobson, The Psychology of Jingoism (1901).

J.A. Hobson, Confessions of an Economic Heretic (1938).

H. Mitchell, "Hobson Revisited," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1961, vol. 26, pp. 397-416.

Michael Freeden, "J.A. Hobson as a New Liberal Theorist: Some Aspects of his Social Thought until 1914," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1973, vol. 34, pp. 421-43.

J. Cain, "J.A. Hobson, Cobdenism, and the Radical Theory of Economic Imperialism, 1898-1914," Economic History Review, 1978, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 565-84.

Michael Freeden, "J.A. Hobson as a New Liberal Theorist: Some Aspects of his Social Thought until 1914," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1973, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 421-43.

Michael Freeden, The New Liberalism: An Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).

H.V. Emy, Liberals, Radicals and Social Politics 1892-1914 (Cambridsge University Press, 1973).

H.C.G. Matthew, The Liberal Imperialists: The Ideas and Politics of a Post-Gladstonian Elite (Oxford, 1973).

Rudyard Kipling

Rudyard Kipling, Traffics and Discoveries (1904), ed. Hermione Lee (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987). The short stories dealing with the Boer War include "The Captive," pp. 36-58; "A Sahib's War," pp. 87-104; "The Comprehension of Private Copper, " pp. 144-54. Kipling's view of conscription and a military version of scouting for young boys is presenterd in a story dealing with a dream about an ambush against British troops in South Africa, "The Army of a Dream," pp. 202-41.

Rudyard Kipling, Something of Myself for my Friends Known and Unknown (London: Macmillan, 1937). Chapter 6 deals with South Africa, pp. 147-75.

Rudyard Kipling, "The Absent-Minded Beggar" (1899) used to raise funds for families left behind in England by soldiers serving in South Africa and put to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan.

Rudyard Kipling, Just So Stories (1902). Written in South Africa 1897-1902.

Rudyard Kilping, Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides (London: Macmillan, 1923). Note the swastika emblem on the fronticepiece. See the reading under Baden-Powell on the scout movement.

Bonamy Dubrée, Rudyard Kipling: Realist and Fabulist (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), IV "The Empire," pp. 71-111.

The Age of Kipling, ed. John Ross (New YOrk: Simon and Schuster, 1972), Michael Edwards, "Oh to meet an Army Ma!: Kipling and the Soldiers," pp. 37-44; George Shepperson, "Kipling and the Boer War," pp. 81-88; Eric Stokes, "Kipling's Imperialism," pp. 90-98.

Kipling's Mind and Art: Selected Critical Essays, ed. Andrew Rutherford (Stanford University Press, 1966).

Lord Birkenhead, Rudyard Kipling (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978). XIV "The Boer War," pp. 204-213; XV "A Waning Confidence," pp. 214-229; XVI "From War to War," pp. 230-258.

Philp Mason, Kipling: The Glass, The Shadow and the Fire (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975).

Charles Carrington, Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work (London: Macmillan, 1978). 13 "The South African War (1899-1902)," pp. 359-90.

Norman Page, A Kipling Companion (London: Macmillan, 1989).

M. Van Wyk Smith, Drummer Hodge: The Poetry of the Anglo-Boer War (Oxford, 1978).

Angus Wilson, The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling (1977).

Andrew Rutherford, "The Subaltern as Hero: Kipling and Frontier War," in The Literature of War (1978).
Alfred Fried

Alfred Fried, Die Grundlagen des revolutionären Pazifismus (Tübingen, 1908).

Alfred Fried, Handbuch der Friedensbewegung (1905).

Alfred Fried, Jugenderinnerungen , ed. R. Goldscheid (Berlin, 1925).

Lord Baden-Powell and the Scoutiing Movement

Baden-Powell, Aids to Scouting (written before the Boer War).

Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys (London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1960, 33rd editon). First published in 6 fortnightly parts between January and March 1908. First edition May 1908.

Lord Baden-Powell of Gilwell, Lessons from the "Varsity of Life" (London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1933). VII "The South African War," pp. 198-214; X "Life Number 2 - The Boy Scouts and Girl Guides," pp. 269-307.

Rudyard Kilping, Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides (London: Macmillan, 1923). Note the swastika emblem on the fronticepiece. See the reading under Kipling, an enthusiastic supporter of the scouting movement.

E.K. Wade, Twenty One Years of Scouting: The Offical History of the Boy Scout Movement from its Inception (London: C. Arthur Pearson, 1929).

Henry Collins et al., B-P's Scouts: An Official History of the Boy Scouts Association (London: Collins, 1961).

J.O. Springall, Youth, Empire and Society: British Youth Movements, 1883-1940 (London, 1977).

J.O. Springhall, "The Boy Scouts, Class and Militarism in Relation to British Youth Movements, 1908-1930," International Review of Social History, 1971, vol. XVI, pp. 125-58.

Michael Rosenthal, "Knights and Retainers: The Earliest Version of Baden-Powell's Boy Scout Scheme," Journal of Contemporary History, October 1980, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 603-17.

Duncan Grimell-Milne, Baden-Powell at Mafeking (London: Bodley Head, 1957).

William Hillcourt with Olave, Lady Baden-Powell, BP: The Two Halves of a Hero (Lodnon: Heidemann, 1964).

Norman Angell

Norman Angell, The Great Illusion (1909).

Norman Angell, After All: The Autobiography of Norman Angell (London, 1952).

Norman Angell, "Pacifism," Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: 1933), vol. 11, pp. 527-28.

Howard Weinroth, "Norman Angell and The Great Illusion: An Episode in Pre-1914 Pacifism," Historical Journal, 1974, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 551-74.

Albert Marrin, Sir Norman Angell (Boston: Twayne, 1979).

J.D.B. Miller, Norman Angell and the Futility of War (1986).

Breaker Morant

Breaker Morant's poetry: selected poems in Cutlack and Denton.

F.M. Cutlack, Breaker Morant: A Horseman who made History (Sydney: Ure Smith, 1980).

Kit Denton, The Breaker (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1980).

K. Ross, Breaker Morant (Melbourne: Edward Arnold, 1979).

Breaker Morant and the Bushveldt Carbineers, ed. Arthur Davey (Cape Town: Van Riebeck Society, 1987), second series no. 18.

Topic 8: The First World War (1914-1918)↩

For many people the image of war they have is one based upon the stalemate of the trench warfare of the First World War. This is understandable given the fact that the First World War is so significant for a number of reasons: it was the most destructive and far-reaching war up to that time, with millions of combatants killed; it led to the collapse and disappearance of the Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian monarchies; it introduced the concept of total warfare which involved the intregration of the civilian economy into the war effort; and stimulated an extraordinary outpouring of novels, poems, plays, art, and of course the new medium of films, as no other previous war has done.

All the participants in the war believed it would be a short war and therefore had not made any provision for a long, drawn out and inconclusive war which would be fought in muddy trenches. The bitterness and disillusionment of the young men who had to fight under these conditions is well represented in that classic novel and film of the First World War, Erich Maria Remarque's All Qiuet on the Western Front (1929). Remarque, with brutal realism, shows how the "iron youth" of Germany were indoctrinated at school about the Fatherland only to lose their faith, their hope for the future and their lives at the front.

A quite different account of the trenches is given by Adolf Hitler in Mein Kampf (1925-26) written while he was in prison for staging an attempted coup against the Weimar Republic. Hitler's experiences at the front were totally different from Remarque's. Hitler loved the comraderie and sense of purpose which the war gave him and his patriotism was not brought into question by the defeat in 1918. Rather Hitler blamed the Jews, pacifists, communists, and bourgeoisie at the home front for betraying the "undefeated" German army by surrendering. His remarks about war propaganda and the reasons for Germany's defeat are very revealing of his later actions as leader of Germany after 1933.

Hitler was not the only person to realise the importance of propaganda in total war although few learnt to use it as well as he did. All sides used posters and the newspapers to distort the public's image of the enemy and to stimulate support for the sacrifices demanded by the war. A study of war propaganda posters shows how civilians can be easily manipulated by vested interests.

In the Middle East the British attempted to destabilise the Turkish Empire by fomenting unrest amongst the Arabs. The young officer T.E. Lawrence was used to organise this because of his local knowledge gained from archeological activity before the war. However, Lawrence came to regret his activities and became suspicious of British intentions. He came to support genuine independence for the Arabs and his outspokeness cost him his rank of colonel. His account of the Arab revolt, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph (1926) has become a classic.

Since women did not serve in the army and did not fight in active combat there are fewer accounts by women of war. One of the small number of ways women could take a more active role was as a nurse. Florence Nightingale in the Crimean War and Vera Brittain in the First World War were two women who have made important contributions to our understanding of war. Vera Brittain served briefly as a nurse in Crete before returning to England and beginning a life-long career as a pacifist. Her memoir Testament of Youth (1933) and diary Chronicle of Youth (1981) show how she progressed from nurse to pacifist and feminist.

A young British poet, Wilfred Owen who was killed at the front in November 1918, put his experiences of trench warfare into moving verse. Without excessive sentimentality Owen shows the pity of war and expresses overwhelming sadness at the loss of so many young men. Some 40 years later the British composer and pacifist Benjamin Britten wrote a "War Requiem" using some of Owen's poetry to commemorate in 1962 the rebuilding of Coventry Cathedral which had been destroyed during the Second World War. Britten's music has been set to film by Derek Jarman (1985?) with Sir Laurence Olivier as the old soldier.

The First World War also influenced a young French historian who was to become one of the most influential historians of the 20th century in founding the so-called "Annales School" of social history. Marc Bloch served in the French Army in the First World War and in the resistance during the Second before being executed by the Nazis in 1944 for his activities. He wrote two personal accounts of war, the Memoirs of War (1915) dealing with the early stages of the First World War before the stalemate of trench warfare and Strange Defeat (1940) on the sudden collapse of France in 1940.

The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an early opponent of the war. In 1916 the first edition of Justice in War Time appeared with his arguments about the immorality of killing, the appeal of patriotism and the role of intellectuals in supporting the war. His activity in the "No Conscription Fellowship," an aide organisation for draft resisters, led to his imprisonment and loss of his lectureship at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1918. For the rest of his life Russell was to oppose war and the indiscriminate killing of human beings and as late as the 1960s he was involved in War Crimes Tribunals looking into American military activity in Vietnam.

Films about the First World War

There are scores of films about the First World War but I have chosen only 4 which I believe are not only outstanding examples of cinema but which also have something important to say about the experience of war. Milestone's film of Remarque's best-selling novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1930) is interesting for two reasons: because it was banned by the Nazis for not showing war in a heroic light and because German soldiers were played sympathetically by unknown American actors in the early days of "talkies."

One of the most complex and rich films about war is Renoir's La Grande Illusion (1937) in which questions of class, nationality, language, and sex are dealt with in the context of a prisoner of war camp. Renoir was himself a pacifist and he made this film in 1937 when it was becoming clear that the Nazis were intent upon provoking another world war.

The question of military justice in the First World War is dealt with in two films: Kubrick's Paths of Glory (1957) and Losey's King and Country (1964) (compare with Beresford's Breaker Morant on the Boer War). Both deal in different ways with the problem of army discipline and the, until recently, little dicussed issue of courts martial and executions in time of war. Paths of Glory is the first of three films by Kubrick on war (Dr Strangelove (1964) and Full Metal Jacket (1987)) which I will be showing and it is interesting to see how Kubrick's treatment of war differs from film to film.

1. Lewis Milestone's All Quiet on the the Western Front, Universal 1930, 130 mins.

2. Jean Renoir, La Grande Illusion, RAC 1937, 117 mins.

3. Joseph Losey, King and Country, 1964, 86 mins.

4. Stanley Kubrick's Paths of Glory, UA 1957, 86 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. The experience of war by one of the greatest historians of the first half of the 20th century: Marc Bloch's Memoirs of War (1915) and Strange Defeat (1940).

2. A philosopher opposed to war: Bertrand Russell, Justice in War Time (1916, 1917).

3. Wilfred Owen's war poetry (1917-18).

4. Hitler's experience as a soldier during the First World War and his attitude to war: Mein Kampf (1925-26).

5. The experiences of a soldier who came to support Arab independence against the Turks, and later the British and French: T.E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph (1926).

6. A classic depiction of trench warfare: Erich Maria Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929) and Lewis Milestone's film (1930).

7. Vera Brittain's diary and memoir of her pacifism and nursing experience: Testament of Youth (1933) and Chronicle of Youth (1981).

8. Propaganda in the First World War.

9. Jean Renoir's "great illusion": La Grande Illusion (1937).

10. Benjamin Britten's combination of Owen's poetry and the Latin Requiem Mass: War Requiem (1962)and Derek Jarman's film of the War Requiem (1985?).

11. The courts martial and execution of soldiers: Stanley Kubrick's Paths of Glory (1957) and Joseph Losey's King and Country (1964).

Readings on the Historical Background

The First World War

Denis Winter, Death's Men: Soldiers of the Great War (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979). Chapter 6 "Trench Life" pp. 80-106; chapter 7 "The Weapons of Trench Warfare" pp. 107-28; chapter 8 "The Strain of Trench Warfare" pp. 129-40.

J.M. Winter, The Experience of World War I (London: Macmillan, 1988), "The Civilain War," pp. 165-68, 183-89

John Terraine, The Western Front (1964).

John Terraine, The Smoke and the Fire: Myths and Anti-Myths of War 1861-1945 (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1980).

John Terraine, White Heat: The New Warfare 1914-18 (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1982). Chapter V "The Deadlock: The Problem," pp. 142-51; chapter VIII "The Wearing Out Fight: Western Version," pp. 203-27.

J.M. Winter, The Experience of World War I (London: Macmillan, 1988).

John Keegan, The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme (New York: Vintage, 1977). Chapter 4 "The Somme, July 1st, 1916," pp. 204-84.

Arthus Marwick, War and Social Change in the Twentieth Century: A Comparative Study of Britain, France, Germany, Russia and the United States (London: Macmillan, 1974).

Gil Elliot, The Twentieth Century Book of the Dead (Penguin, 1973).

Robert Wohl, The Generation of 1914 (London, 1980).

Marc Ferro, The Great War.

Tony Ashworth, Trench Warfare, 1914-1918: The Live and Let Live System (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980).

David Englander, "The French Soldier, 1914-18," French History, 1987, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 49-67.

Eric J. Leed, No Man's Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge University Press, 1979).

Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau, A travers leurs journaux: 14-18. Les combattants des tranchées (Paris: Armand Colin, 1986).

Lyn MacDonald, 1914-1918: Voices and Images of the Great War (London: Michael Joseph, 1988).

Douglas Porch, "The French Army in the First World War," in Military Effectiveness. Vol. 1: The First World War, ed. Allan R. Millett and Williamson Murray (Boston: Allen and Unwin), pp. 190-228).

Paul-Marie de la Gorce, The French Army: A Military-Political History, trans. Kenneth Douglas (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1963), "The First World War," pp. 93-118; "The Army and the Russian Revolution," pp. 119-144.

Pedroncini

Mutinies, Courts Martial and Executions

Anthony Babington, For the Sake of Example: Capital Courts Martial 1914-1920 (London: Paladin, 1986).

J.H. Williams, Mutiny 1917 (London: Heinemann, 1962).

John Ellis, Eye Deep in Hell (Croom Helm, 1976).

Richard M. Watt, Dare Call it Treason (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963).

Elamr Dinter, Hero or Coward: Pressures Facing the Soldier in Battle (London: Frank Cass, 1985). Although about the Second World War it has much of interest to say about the problem in general.

War Propaganda

First World War Posters, ed. Joseph Darracott and Belinda Loftus (Imperial War Museum).

The First World War in Posters from the Imperial War Museum, London, ed. Joseph Darracott (New York: Dover, 1974).

P. Knightly, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (London: Harcourt Brace Yovanovich, 1975).

H.G. Marquis, "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1978, vol. xii.

Harrold D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in World War (London, 1927).

G.D. Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918 (Palo Alto, California, 1938).

Peter Buitenhuis, The Great War of Words: Literature as Propaganda 1914-18 and After (London: Blatsford, 1989).

Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda : The Art of Persuasion.WW2. An Allied and Axis Visual Record, 1933-1945 (Secaucus, New Jersey: The Wellfleet Press, 1987).

Maurice Rickards, Poster of the First World War (London. 1969).

Exhibition catalog: Philipp Fehl and Patricia Fenix, World War I Propaganda Posters (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1969).

J. Hilvert, Blue-Pencil Warriors: Censorship and Propaganda in World War Two (St. Lucia, 1984).

Film and Radio Propaganda in World War II, ed. K.R. Short (Knoxville, Tennessee, 1983).

Literature about the War

Paul Fussell, "The Troglodyte World," The Great War and Modern Memory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. 36-74.

The First World War in Fiction: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Holger Klein (London: Macmillan, 1978).

Corelli Barnett, "A Military Historian's View of the Literature of the Great War," Essays by Divers Hands, (Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature, Oxford University Press, 1970), vol. 36, pp. 1-18.

Frederick J. Hoffman, The Twenties (New York: Collier, 1962), chapter 2 "The War and the Post-War Temper," pp. 67-107 on American literature.

A.C. Ward, The Nineteen Twenties: Literature and Ideas in the Post-War Decade (London: Macmillan, 1930), chapter 7 "Unhappy Warriors."

On the "Fronterlebnis" in literature during the 1920s and 1930s see Richard Grunberger, A Social History of the Third Reich (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), ch. 23 "Literature," pp. 431-56.

Constance A. Brown, The Literary Aftermath: English Literary Response to the First World War (Microform/19335).

Kriegserlebnis: Der Erste Weltkrieg in der literarische Gestaltung und symbolischen Deutung der Nationen, ed. Klaus Vondung (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1980).

Films on the First World War

See the list of general works on war films on p. 7.

Michael T. Isenberg, War on Film: The American Cinema and World War I, 1914-1941 (London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1981). In particular chapter 9 "Film against War," pp. 128-41.

K. Brownlow, The War, the West and the Wilderness (London, 1979).

J. Daniel, Guerre et cinéma: grandes illusions et petits soldats 1895-1971 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1972).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Marc Bloch

Marc Bloch, Memoirs of War, 1914-15, trans. Carole Fink (Cambridge University Press, 1988).

Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft, trans. Peter Putnam (New York, 1953).

Marc Bloch, Strange Defeat: A Statement of Evidence Written in 1940, trans. Gerard Hopkins (Oxford University Press, 1949; New York, 1968).

Marc Bloch, Feudal Society, 2 vols., trans. L.A. Manyon (Chicago, 1961).

Carole Fink, "Introduction: Marc Bloch and World War I," in Marc Bloch, Memoirs of War, 1914-15, trans. Carole Fink (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 15-73.

Anthony Cheal Pugh, "Defeat, May 1940: Claude Simon, Marc Bloch and the Writing of Disaster," in The Second World War in Literature. Eight Essays, ed. Ian Higgins (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1986), pp. 59-70.

Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Russell, Justice in War Time (1916, 1917) (Nottingham: The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, n.d.). In particular "The Ethics of War" (1915).

Bertrand Russell, War Crimes in Vietnam (1967). An example of Russell's opposition to war spanning half a century. See reading for topic 13.

The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, vol. 2 1914-1944 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968).

Bertrand Russell, Prophecy and Dissent 1914-16 in the Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, vol. 13, ed. Richard A. Rempel et al. (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988). See in particular his defence at his trial "Rex v. Bertrand Russell."

Bertrand Russell, "Experiences of a Pacifist in the First World War," in Portraits from Memory and other Essays (London, 1956), pp. 30-34.

Ronald Clark, The Life of Bertrand Russell (London: Jonathan Cape, 1975). Chapters 10-12 dealing with the war, pp. 236-357.

Alan Ryan, Bertrand Russell: A Political Life (London: Allen Lane, 1988). "At War With War," p. 55-80.

Jo Vellacott, Bertrand Russell and the Pacifists of the First World War (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981).

G.H. Hardy, Bertrand Russell and Trinity: A College Controversy of the Last War (Cambridge University Press, 1942, 1970).

Wilfred Owen

The Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen, ed. C. Day Lewis (New York: New Directions Books, 1965).

The Penguin Book of First World War Poetry, ed. Jon Silkin (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979), "Introduction," pp. 11-73.

Jon Stallworthy, Wilfred Owen: A Biography (Oxford University Press, 1977).

A.E. Lane, The Adequate Response: The War Poetry of Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1972).

Herbert Lomas, "The Critic as Anti-Hero: War Poetry," Hudson Review, 1985, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 376-89.

Richard Hauffpauir, "An Assessment of Wilfred Owen," English Literature in Transition, 1880-1920, 1985, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 41-55.

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (1925-26), ed. D.C. Watt (London: Hutchinson, 1972). Chapters 5,6,7, "The World War," "War Propaganda," "The Revolution," pp. 144-87.

Werner Maser, Hitler: Legend, Myth, and Reality, trans. Peter and Betty Ross (New York: Harper and Row, 1973). Chapter 4 "Soldier for the Reich," pp. 70-116.

John Toland, Adolf Hitler (New York: Doubleday, 1976), 2 vols. "Part I, Visionary," vol. 1, pp. 3-94. Especially ch. 3 "Overcome with Rapturous Enthusiasm, May 1913-November 1918," pp. 55-94.

Hans Staudinger, The Inner Nazi: A Critical Analysis of Mein Kampf (1981).

Werner Maser, Hitler's Mein Kampf: An Analysis, trans. R.H. Barry (1970).

Sebastian Haffner, The Meaning of Hitler: Hitler's Use of Power. His Successes and Failures, ed. Ewald Osers (New York: Macmillan, 1979).

Joachim Fest, Hitler (Penguin).

Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (New York: Harper and Row, revised edition1964).

Eberhard Jäckel, Hitler'sWeltanschauung: A Blueprint for Power, trans. Herbert Arnold (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan Univiersity Press, 1972).

John W. Wheeler-Bennett, The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics, 1918-1945 (London, 1953).

Ernst Deuerlein, "Hitlers Eintritt in die Politik und die Reichswehr," Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, April 1959, vol. VII, pp. 179-85, 191-205.

R. Hanser, Prelude to Terror: The Rise of Hitler 1919-1923.

R.G.L. Waite, Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Postwar Germany 1918-1923.

James M. Diehl, Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany (Bloomington: Indiana Univeristy Press).

T.E. Lawrence

T.E. Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdon: A Triumph (1926) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962, 1988).

Evolution of a Revolt: Early Post-War Writing of T.E. Lawrence, ed. Stanley and Rodelle Weintraub (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1968).

T.E. Lawrence, Revolt in the Desert (London: Jonathan Cape, 1927).

T.E. Lawrence: A Reader's Guide, ed. Frank Clements (Newton Abbot, Devon: David and Charles, 1972).

Liddell Hart, T.E. Lawrence in Arabia and After (Lodnon: Jonathan Cape, 1934, 1961).

Stephen Ely Tabachnick, T.E. Lawrence (Boston: Twayne, 1978).

Jeffrey Meyers, The Wounded Spirit: A Study of the Seven Pillars of Wisdom (London: Martin Brian and O'Keefe, 1973).

John E. Mack, A Prince of Our Disorder: The Life of T.E. Lawrence (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976).

Erich Maria Remarque

Erich Maria Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front (1929) (St. Albans, Hert.: Triad, 1977) and its sequelThe Road Back (trans. A.W. Wheen (London: Granada, 1979).

M. Eksteins, "All Quiet on the Western Front and the Fate of a War," Journal of Contemporary History, 1980, vol. xiv.

John F. Riddick, "Erich Maria Remarque: A Bibliography of Biographical and Critical Material, 1929-1980," Bulletin of Bibliography, 1982, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 207-10. Contains a good list of contemporary reviews.

A.F. Bance, "Im Western Nichts Neues: A Bestseller in Context," Modern Language Review, April 1977, no. 72, pp. 359-73.

Erich Maria Remarque zum 70. Geburtstag an 22 Juni 1968 (Kiepebheuer und Witsch, 1968).

Holger Klein, "Dazwischen Niemandsland..." in Großbritanien und Deutschland. Festschrift für John W.P. Bourke, ed. O. Kuhn (München, 1974).

Helmut Liedloff, "Two War Novels: A Critical Comparison," Revue de Littérature Comparée, 1968, 42, pp. 390-406.

Brian A. Rowley, "Journalism into Fiction: Erich Maria Remarque, Im Western nichts Neues," in The First World War in Fiction: A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Holger Klein (London: Macmillan, 1978), pp. 101-111.

Hubert Rüter, Erich Maria Remarque, Im Western nichts Neues: Ein Bestseller der Kriegsliteratur im Kontext, Entstehung, Struktur, Rezeption, Didaktik (Paderborn: Schörhigh, 1980).

Kathleen Devine, "The Way Back: Alun Lewis and Remarque," Anglia, 1985, vol. 103, nos. 3-4, pp. 320-335.

Vera Brittain

Vera Brittain, Testament of Youth: An Autobiographical Study of the Years 1900-1925 (1933) (London: Virago Press, 1978, 1988).

Vera Brittain, Chronicle of Youth: War Diary 1913-1917, ed. Alan Bishop and Terry Smart (London: Fontana/Collins, 1982).

Vera Brittain, "Women and War," in Lady into Woman: A History of Women fromo Victoria to Elizabeth II (London: A. Dakers, 1953).

Vera Brittain, Not Without Honour (London: Grant Richards, 1924).

Vera Brittain, Poems of the War and After (London: Victor Golancz, 1934).

Vera Brittain, Honourable Estate: A Novel of Transition (New York: Macmillan, 1936).

Vera Brittain, War-time Letters to Peace Lovers (London: Peace Book Co., 1940).

Testament of a Peace Lover: Letters from Vera Brittain, ed. Winifred and Alan Eden-Green (London: Virago Press, 1989?). Written during the Second World War.

Testament of a Generation: The Journalism of Vera Brittain and Winifred Holtby, ed. Paul Berry and Alan Bishop (1985).

Hilary Bailey, Vera Brittain: The Story of the Woman who wrote Testament of Youth (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).

Lynne Layton, "Vera Brittain's Testament(s)," Behind the Lines: Gender and the Two World Wars, ed. Margaret Randolph Higonnet et al. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), pp. 70-83.

Dale Spender, "The Whole Duty of Women: Vera Brittain," Women of Ideas (And What Men Have Done to Them) (London: Ark, 1983), pp. 627-39.

Muriel Mellown, "Vera Brittain: Feminist in a New Age (1893-1970)," in Feminist Theorists: Three Centuries of Key Women Thinkers, ed. Dale Spender (New York: Pantheon, 1983), pp. 314-33.

Muriel Mellown, "Reflections on Feminism and Pacifism in the Novels of Vera Brittain," Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature, 1983, vol. 2, pp. 215-28.

Marvin Rintala, "Chronicle of a Generation: Vera Brittain's Testament," Journal of Political and Military Sociology, 1984, vol. 12, pp. 23-35.

Jean Pickering, "On the Battlefield: Vera Brittain's Testament of Youth," Women's Studies, 1986, vol. 13, no. 1-2, pp. 75-85.
Jean Renoir

Robin Wood, "La Grande Illusion," The International Dictionary of Films and Filmmaking, Volume 1: Films, ed. Christopher Lyon (London: Macmillan, 1987).pp. 182-4. Contains a good bibliography.

La Grande Illusion, trans. Marianne Alexandre and Andrew Sinclair (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968).

Screenplay of "La Grande Illusion" in Masterworks of the French Cinema, ed. John Weightman (London: Faber and Faber, 1988).

Raymond Durgnat, Jean Renoir (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).

Leo Braudy, Jean Renoir: The World of his Films (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co., 1972).

Jean Renoir: A Guide to References and Resources, ed. Christopher Faulkner (Boston, Mass.: G.K. Hall and Co., 1979), pp. 102-106.

Jean Renoir and Charles Spaak, La Grande Illusion (Paris: Balland, 1974).

Alexander Sesonske, Jean Renoir: The French Films, 1924-1939 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980).

Claude Gautier, Jean Renoir: La double méprise, 1925-1939 (Paris: Les editeurs français réunis, 1980).

Jean Renoir, My Life and My Films (1974).

Renoir on Renoir: Interviews, Essays, and Remarks , trans. Carol Folk (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

Christopher Faulkner, Jean Renoir: A Guide to References and Resources (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1979).

Thomas J. Hines, "War Crimes: Jean Renoir's La Grande Illusion," Crime in Motion Pictures, ed. Douglas Radcliff-Umstead (Kent State University, 1986).

Benjamin Britten

War Requiem, Opus 66: In loving memory of Roger Burney, Piers Dunkerley, Michael Halliday. Latin text from "Missa pro defunctis." Poems by Wilfred Owen (1962).

Benjamin Britten, Owen Wingrave , Op.85 (1970). Libretto by Myfanwy Piper, "Owen Wingrave. An Opera in Two Acts, in The Operas of Benjamin Britten, ed. David Herbert (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979), pp. 329-350.

Michael Kennedy, Britten (London: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1981), "War requiem," pp. 74-80.

Christopher Headington, Britten (London: Eyre Methuen, 1981).

Henry James, "Owen Wingrave" (1892) in The Complete Tales of Henry James, ed. Leon Edel, volume 9 "1892-1998" (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1964), pp. 13-51.

The Britten Companion, ed. Christopher Palmer (London: Faber and Faber, 1984). John Evans, "Owen Wingrave: A Case for Pacifism," pp. 227-37.

David Mitchell, Owen Wingrave and the Sense of the Past: Some Reflections on Britten's Opera (London: Faber Music, 1970).

Stanley Kubrick

Humphrey Cobb, Paths of Glory (New York: The Viking Press, 1935).

Alexander Walker, Stanley Kubrick Directs (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), "Paths of Glory," pp. 80-155.

Thomas Allen Nelson, Kubrick: Inside a Film Artist's Maze (Blomington: Indiana University Press, 1982). Ch. 1 "Reputation and the Aesthetics of Contingency," pp. 1- 19; ch. 2 "In the Beginning: From Fear and Desire to Paths of Glory, " pp. 37-53.

Michel Ciment, Kubrick, trans. Gilbert Adair (London: Collins, 1983).

Robert Phillip Kolker, A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Scorsese, Spielberg, Altman (New York: Oxford University Press, Second Edition 1988).

J. Burgess, "The Anti-Militarism of Stanley Kubrick," Film Quarterly, Fall 1964, vol. XVIII, no. 1, pp. 4-11.

Norman Kagan, The Cinema of Stanley Kubrick (New York: Continuum, 1989).

Jesse Bier, "Cobb and Kubrick: Author and Auteur (Paths of Glory as Novel and Film)," The Virginia Quarterly, Summer 1985, vol. 61, pp. 453-71.

Topic 9: The Spanish Civil War (1936-39)↩

In some respects the Spanish Civil War was a dress rehearsal for the Second World War in that it pitted the forces of fascism against those of democracy and communism. When the fascist general Franco attempted to overthrow the elected republican government the sides which were to confront each other in 1939 were clearly to be seen. On the one hand were the fascist states of Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany who supported General Franco and on the other hand were the democratic and communist forces supported by Stalin's Communist Russia and indirectly by the democracies of France, Britain and America. Although, for example, the British government refused to directly assist the Republicans they did tolerate their own nationals going to Spain to form the International Brigades fighting against Franco.

The English socialist journalist and novelist George Orwell was one of many British and Americans who went to Spain to fight fascism. His account of the war was published soon after his return to Britain as Homage to Catalonia (1938). The civil war confirmed his socialist beliefs and revealed to him the anti-democratic and authoritarian behaviour of the Stalinists, supposedly fighting on hehalf of the demorcatic forces.

One of the reasons Hitler was keen to assist Franco was so that the illegally reformed and expanded German airforce could get some combat experience before the Second World War broke out. On Franco's orders the German Condor Legion bombed the Basque town of Guernica in 1937 causing considerable civilian casualties. The bombing prompted the Spanish painter Pablo Picasso to portray the suffering of innocent victims in time of war in a mural he painted for the Spanish pavilion at the World Exposition in Paris that year. The picture of "Guernica" (1937) is now regarded as the greatest anti-war painting ever made.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Pablo Picasso's reaction to the Nazi bombing of the city of Guernica: the mural "Guernica" (1937).

2. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia (1938).

Readings on the Historical Background

The Spanish Civil War

Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

Raymond Carr, The Spanish Civil War (New York: Norton, 1986).

Brian Crozier, Franco: A Biographical History (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1967).

Peter Elstob, The Condor Legion (New York: Ballantine Books, 1973).

Ronald Fraser, Blood of Spain: An Oral History of the Spanish Civil War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1979).

Robert Payne, The Civil War in Spain (New York: Putnam, 1962).

Herbert R. Southworth, Guernica! Guernica! A Study of Journalism, Diplomacy, Propaganda, and History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).

Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts, The Day Guernica Died (London: Hodder and Staughton, 1976).

And I Remember Spain: A Spanish Civil War Anthology, ed. Murray A. Sperber (London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon, 1974).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Pablo Picasso

Other paintings on war: Murals "War" and "Peace" (1952) for a chapel in Vallaurio; "Massacre in Korea" (1951).

Picasso's Guernica, ed. Ellen C. Oppler (New York: W.W. Norton, Norton Critical Studies in Art History, 1988).

Rudolf Arnheim, The Genesis of a Painting: Picasso's Guernica (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).

Anthony Blunt, Picasso's 'Guernica': The Whidden Lectures for 1966 (Oxford University Press, 1969).

Eberhard Fisch, Guernica by Picasso: A Study of the Picture and its Context, trans. James Hotchkiss (London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 2nd enlarged edition, 1988).

Herschel B. Chipp, Picasso's Guernica: History, Transformations, Meanings (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). Contains an extensive bibliography.

Roland Penrose, Picasso: His Life and Work (London: Granada, 1985). Chapter 10 "Guernica," pp. 295-324.

Patrick O'Brian, Pablo Ruiz Picasso: A Biography (London: William Collins, 1976).

Frank D. Russell, Picasso's Guernica: The Labyrinth of Narrative and Vision (London: Thames and Hudson, 1980).

Picasso in Perspective, ed. Gert Schiff (New Jersey: Spectrum, 1976).

Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective, ed. W. Rubin (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1980).

E.F. Granell, Picasso's Guernica: The End of a Spanish Era (Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press, 1981).

Ludwig Ullman, Das Bild des Krieges in der Kunst Picassos (Osnabrück: Universität Osnabrück, 1983).

A. Stassinopoulos Huffington, Picasso: Creator and Destroyer (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988).

D. Zimmer, "Letter from Guernica: The Bridge across the Mundace," Encounter, January 1978, pp. 58-60.

Herschel B. Chipp, "The First Step Towards Guernica," Arts Magazine, October 1988, vol. 64, pp. 62-7.

Sidra Stich, "Picasso's Art and Politics in 1936," Arts Magazine, October 1983, vol. 58, pp. 113-18.

George Orwell

See reading on Orwell in topic 12.

Sant Singh Bal, "The Spanish Civil War and Orwell's Ethics of Commitment," Commonwealth Quarterly, 1979, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 68-84.

Murray A. Sperber, "A Study of Politics and Literature in George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia," Dalhousie Review, 1972, no. 52, pp. 226-36.

David Wykes, "Orwell in the Trenches," Virginia Quarterly Review, Summer 1983, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 415-35.

Topic 10: The Second World War (1939-1945)↩

Whereas the First World War stagnated into a war of attrition in the trenches, the Second World War was a much more free flowing affair thanks to the tank and the aeroplane. Writers on the First World War were struck by the senseless slaughter caused by the repeated attempts of the generals to break out of the stalemate of the trenches. Writers on the Second World War were struck by a very different set of circumstances, in particular the unusual brutality of the Nazi régime and its policies towards Jews, Slavs, communists, Gypsies and so on; the problem of resistance to an occupying German army in France, the Netherlands, and Poland for example; the extraordinary loss of life on the Eastern or Russian front where the main conflict against the German army took place; and the particularly horrific effects of the atom bomb blast on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

As the topic of the Second World War is so immense (Professor Austin Gough devotes and entire year to the European part of the subject) I have selected a handful of topics which I believe are important but which have not received the attention they deserve: life in the German army towards the end of the war, the experience of fighting on the Eastern front from the perspective of the Russian Red Army, the reactions of American soldiers to fighting, and the response of victims and eyewitnesses to the bombing of Hiroshima.

The German perspective is provided by two influential novelists, Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass. Böll served in the German army and his poignant and simple short stories as well as his two earliest novels And where were you, Adam? (1947-51) and The Train was on Time reveal what it must have been like in the German army in the chaotic last months of the war. Grass on the other hand is a much more complex writer whose allegorical works, such The Tin Drum (1959), are sometimes difficult at first sight to understand but which reveals much about the insanity of life under the Nazis.

For too long the West has refused to acknowldge the enormous contribution of the Russian Red Army to the defeat of Hitler. Some 20 million died as a result of Hitler's invasion and subsequent forced retreat. One of the bravest episodes in the Russian resistance to Hitler was the siege of Leningrad (September 1941-February 1943) which held out for over a year and which reduced the population to starvation. Dmitri Shostakovich, one of the greatest composers of the 20th century, was in Stalingrad at the beginning of the siege and began work on a war symphony, his symphony number 7 (first performed March 1942). I will play an extract of this powerful symphony in one of the lectures.

In spite of what I said earlier about the neglect of certains aspects of the Second World War, one must not overreact by ignoring the American perspective. On the home front most Americans were convinced that the Second World War was a "good" war. This attitude must be seen in the light of America's traditional policy of isolationism, i.e. of not getting involved in the affairs of other, especially European, nations. The Chicago radio personality and journalist Studs Turkel has collected hundreds of interviews in The "Good War": An Oral History of World War Two (1984) in which American veterans recall what it was like to live, work and fight during the Second World War. A recent and perceptive work on the experience of American soldiers in the Second World War by an historian who served there is Paul Fussell's Wartime (198?).

The war also had a profound effect on the way in the economy was organised. With the need for total mobilisation of the economy in order to supply and fight a "total war" the individual needs of consumers had to be sacrificed. This process had begun in the First World War with the socalled "Kriegssozialismus" of Generals Ludendorf and Hindenberg in Germany and was continued with Hitler's "Four Year Plan" of 1936 to prepare the economy for war. Similar measures were taken in Britian and the USA. The Austrian liberal economist Friedrich A. Hayek, inThe Road to Serfdom (1944), expressed the fear that the extensive controls placed on the economy as part of war-time economic planning would continue into peace-time with serious political and economic consequences.

In the Far East the Japanese began their military expansion into Manchuria in 1931 some 10 years before the Americans entered the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Their aim was to create an empire caled the Great East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere which included Manchuria, China, South East Asia, Micronesia, Indonesia, and New Guinea. The expansion of Japan was stopped by the United States Navy and Air Force and Japan was forced to surrender unconditionally with the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

The Japanese occupation of Manchuria and parts of China has not received the attention it deserves. It was a brutal and bloody occupation which resulted in the economic enslavement of hundreds of thousands of Chinese labourers and the dispossession, rape and murder of perhaps an equal number of non-combatants in cities such as Nanking. The nine hour film The Human Condition (1959) by Masaki Kobayashi is a quite successful attempt to show what the occupation of Manchuria was like through the eyes of a young Japanese conscript. Unfortunately I do not have time to show the entire film but one part dealing with the basic training of Japanese conscripts is essential viewing.

What makes the war against Japan so unlike the European theatre of operations was the use of the first atomic bombs against cities. The early atomic weapons were not more destructive than massed bombing raids (the fire bombing of Tokyo caused more casualties for example) but they were certainly more cost effective - one plane and one crew with one bomb could cause the same damage as hundreds of bombers with thousands of conventional weapons. It is difficult to imagine what it would be like to be the victim of such a blast, however we can read about the experience of eyewitnesses. One such work is the diary of a Hiroshima doctor, Michiko Hachiya, who was in the city when the bomb dropped. He was injured but survived and kept a diary during the first couple of months after the bomb was dropped. His confusion as to the cause of his injuries and his description of the chaos in the hospitals where a handful of surviving doctors attempted to deal with tens of thousands of dying and injured individuals are revealing of conditions at the time.

Somewhat later John Hersey, a journalist working for the New Yorker magazine, entered Hiroshima and described what he saw in a series of articles. Hersey's approach is an interesting one, to tell the story of the consequences of dropping the atomic bomb through the eyes of a small group of people who survived. By personalising the event in this way Hersey is able to make a powerful statement about war and its costs to both individuals and societies. In 1985 Hersey returned to Japan to bring his book up to date with a description of what has happened in the meantime to those he interviewed in 1946.

Those who were in the city of Hiroshima on the morning the bomb was dropped have images which have stayed with them ever since. The Japanese national radio NHK in 1976 collected hundreds of amateur drawings by survivors which show in a very moving way the difficulties faced by a confused population in the aftermath of the bombing. The drawings deal with problems such as looking for loved ones in the rubble, coping with massive burns, the disposal of the dead, and so on.

Films about the Second World War

The neglect of certain aspects of the war is partly due to the enormous power of the American media to influence our perspective on world events. As the victorious power with its economy at full strength and its civilian heartland untouched by the enemy the United States was able not only to control the political and economic reconstruction of Europe and Japan after the war but also, by means of the power of Hollywood, to create images of what fighting the Second World War was "really" like. The German and Russian experiences were ignored, the former because it was the defeated enemy and the latter because the war-time alliance with Stalin was soon forgotten in the new Cold War (see topic 11).

Günter Grass's first novel The Tin Drum (1959) has been filmed by one of Germany's younger directors Völker Schlöndorff. The film The Tin Drum (1979) can be viewed as an satirical allegory of the collapse of German democracy in the young boy Oscar's refusal to grow any more after the Nazis come to power.

Many millions died in Russia because of Hitler's policy of extermination of undesirable Slavic or communist occupants. Elem Klimov in the film Come and See (1983) shows how a young man, who is forced to join the resistance in Byelorussia, copes with the execution of his family and destruction of his village, witnessing the barbaric extermination of other villages by flame throwers and machine guns, and finally the capture and execution of the Nazis and local their sympathisers.

In occupied France and Italy some of the local population collaborated with the Nazis while others courageously joined the underground resistance. The French historian Marc Bloch, who also served in the First World War (see reading in topic 8), joined the French resistance and was shot by the Nazis in 1944 for his underground activities. In Italy the heroic exploits of an underground leader killed by the Nazis is depicted in Rossellini's film Rome: Open City (1945) which was actually filmed in the last days of the Nazi occupation.

Joesph Heller served in the US airforce stationed Italy and his novel Catch-22 (1961) is a combination of his war-time experiences and his reflections on the nature of war and society in general. He presents a very bleak and pessimistic picture (also a very funny one) of the behaviour of Americans in war.

If I am able to get hold of them I would like show an example of Nazi propaganda films made during the war. Goebbels oversaw a huge flim-making industry which was forced to serve the needs of Hitler and the Nazi Party. During the war they endeavoured to maintain public support with historical films such as Der Grosse König (1942) and Kohlberg (1945) which harked back to previous great victories in German history (Frederick the Great and the resisatnce of the town of Kohlberg to Napoleon).

One of the great epics of the cinema is the film The Human Condition (1959) by Masaki Kobayashi. Over 9 hours it depicts the plight of a young Japanese man with left-wing pacifist inclinations who is sent to manage the slave labourers in occupied Manchuria and then is conscripted to fight in the army against the Russians. It is too long to show in its entirety so I will show the section dealing with the brutal way in which the japanese army imposed basic training on conscripts.

1. Elem Klimov's film Come and See, USSR 1984, 142 mins and interview with Klimov.

2. Mike Nichol'sCatch 22 , Rank 1971, 122 mins.

3. Nazi war propaganda film: Der Grosse König (1942) or Kohlberg (1945)

4. Volker Schlöndorff's The Tin Drum West Germany/France 1979, 142 mins.

5. Roberto Rossellini's Rome: Open City 1945, 101 mins.

6. Masaki Kobayashi, The Human Condition (1959) part 3.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Dmitri Shostakovich's reactions to Stalin and the Nazi invasion of Russia: Testimony and the War Symphony number 7 (1941-2).

2. A liberal attack on war-time economic planning: Friedrich Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944).

3. The Italian resistance: Rossellini's Rome: Open City (1945).

4. The diary of a Japanese doctor, Michiko Hachiya, in Hiroshima: Hiroshima Diary (1945).

5. John Hersey's interviews with Japanese survivors and reconstruction of events on the day the atomic bomb was dropped: John Hersey, Hiroshima (1946).

6. Heinrich Böll's novels and short stories about life in the German army: And where were you, Adam? (1947-51).

7. Black comedy on war: Günter Grass, The Tin Drum (the film 1979 and the novel 1959).

8. Kobayashi's film about the Japanese occupation of Manchuria: The Human Condition (1959).

9. Black comedy on war: Joseph Heller's Catch-22 (1961).

10. The view of nuclear war in the art of the Hiroshima survivors: Unforgettable Fire: Pictures Drawn by Atomic Bomb Survivors (1975).

11. Elem Klimov's reaction to the Nazi invasion of Russia: Come and See (1983).

12. An oral history of the war by American soldiers: Studs Turkel The "Good War" (1984).

13. An account of war by an American historian who has also written on the First World War: Paul Fussell's Wartime (198?).

Readings on the Historical Background

General Works on World War Two

Gordon Wright, The Ordeal of Total War, 1939-1945 (New York: Harper and Row, 1968). "The Impact of Total War," pp. 234-67.

Peter Calvocoressi, Guy Wint, and John Pritchard Total War: Causes and Courses of the Second World War (Revised Second Edition, New York: Pantheon, 1989).

Arthur Marwick, "The Impact of the Second World War on British Society," pp. 151-65 in War and Social Change in the Twentieth Century: A Comparative Study of Britain, France, Germany, Russia and the United States (London: Macmillan, 1974).

Raymond Aron, The Century of Total War (Boston: Beacon Press, 1959), "Dynamism of Total War," pp. 32-55 and "War and the Total State," pp. 74-92.

The Economic Mobilisation for Total War

Karl Hardach, The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).

B.A. Carroll, Design for Total War: Arms and Economics in the Third Reich (The Hague, 1968).

A.S. Milward, The Germany Economy at War (London, 1965).

A.S. Milward, War, Economy and Society 1939-1945 (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1979).

The Resistance

B.M. Gordon, Collaboration in France in the Second World War (Ithaca, New York: 1980).

S. Hawes and R. White, Resistance in Europe, 1939-1945 (London, 1975).

Hitler's Armies in Russia

"The Final Solution. 1. The Decision and How it was put into Effect in the Occupied Zone of Soviet Russia," in Anatomy of the SS State, Helmut Krausnick and Martin Broszat, trans, Dorothy Long and Marian Jackson (London: Paladin, 1973), pp. 77-91.

Norman Rich, Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion (New York: W.W. Norton, 1973). Ch. 18 "The Final Drive for Lebensraum: The Attack on Russia," pp. 204-223.

Paul Carell, Hitler's War on Russia: The Story of German Defeat in the East, vol. 2 Scorched Earth (London, 1970).

Gerald Reitlinger, The House Built on Sand: Conflicts of German Policy in Russia, 1939-1945 (London, 1960).

Gerhard L. Weinberg, Germany and the Soviet Union, 1939-1941 (Leyden, 1954).

Damela Mrazkova and Vladimir Remes, The Russian Front, 1941-1945 (Cape, 1978). Photos.

A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia (London: Macmillan, 1957).

Soviet Partisans in World War Two, ed. J.A. Armstrong (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964).

A. Werth, Russia at War (London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1964).

Harrison Salisbury, The Siege of Leningrad (London: Secker and Warburg, 1969).

The War against Japan

Peter Calvocoressi, Guy Wint, and John Pritchard Total War: Causes and Courses of the Second World War (Revised Second Edition, New York: Pantheon, 1989).

Christopher Thorne, The Far Eastern War: States and Societies, 1941-45 (London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1986).

Christopher Thorne, The Limits of Foreign Policy: The West, the League and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1931-33 (London, 1972).

Christopher Thorne, Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War against Japan, 1941-45 (Oxford University Press, 1979).

Christopher Thorne, Racial Aspects of the Far Eastern War of 1941-1945 (London, 1982).

J. Costello, The Pacific War, 1941-1945 (London, 1981).

T.R. Havens, Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War Two (New York, 1978).

Saburo Ienage, The Pacific War, 1931-1945: A Critical Perspective on Japan's Role in World War II (New York: Pantheon, 1978).

The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895-1945 , ed. R. Meyers and M. Peattie (Princeton, 1984).

A. Shai, Origins of the War in the East (London, 1976).

The Atomic Bomb: The Great Decision, ed. Paul R. Baker (Hillsdale, Illinois: Dryden Press, 1976).

Gar Alperovitz, Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam: The Use of the Atomic Bomb and the American Confrontation with Soviet Power (New York: Vintage, 1967. Revised ed. Penguin, 1985).

Gordon Thomas and Max Witts, Enola Gay (1977).

John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (London: Faber and Faber, 1986).

John Halliday, A Political History of Japanese Capitalism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975).

The Japan Reader. Vol. 1 Imperial Japan 1800-1945, ed. Jon Livingston et al. (New York: Pantheon, 1973).

The Japan Reader. Vol. 2 Postwar Japan 1945 to the Present, ed. Jon Livingston et al. (New York: Pantheon, 1973).

Hiroshima and Nakasaki

Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage caused by the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, trans. Eisei Ishikawa and David L. Swain (New York: Basic Books, 1981).

M. Sherwin, A World Destroyed: The Atomic Bomb and the Grand Alliance (New York, 1977).

Rodney Barker, The Hiroshima Maidens: A Story of Courage, Compassion and Durvival (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986).

Propaganda in World War Two

See reading on prpaganda in WW1 in topic 8.

Anthony Rhodes, Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion. World War Two. An Allied and Axis Visual Record, 1933-1945 (Secaucus, New Jersey: Wellfleet Press, 1987).

Literature of World War Two

Frederick J. Harris, Encounters with Darkness: French and German Writers on World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).

J.M. Ritchie, "Staging the War in German" and A.F. Bance, "The Brutalization of Warfare on the Eastern Front: History and Fiction," in The Second World War in Literature. Eight Essays, ed. Ian Higgins (Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1986), pp. 84-96 and 97-114.

Films about World War Two

Clayton B. Koppers and Gregory D. Black, Hollywood goes to War: How Politics, Profits, and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies (London: I.B. Tauris, 1988).

Roger Manvell, Films and the Second World War (New York: Dell, 1974).

David Welch, Propaganda and the German Cinema, 1933-1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983). Especially chapter VI "War and the Military Image," pp. 186-237.

S. Kracauer, From Caligari to Hitler: A Psychological History of German Film (Princeton, 1973).

R.E. Herzstein, "Goebbels et le Mythe Historique par le Film," Revue d'Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre, 1976, no. 101, pp. 41-62.

M.S. Philips, "The Nazi Control of the German Film Industry," Journal of European Studies, 1971, vol. 1, pp. 37-68.

Leif Furhammar and Folke Isaksson, Politics and Film, trans. Kersti French (London: Studio Vista, 1971).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

Dmitri Shostakovich

Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich as related to and edited by Solomon Volkov, trans. Antonina W. Bouis (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979).

Dmitri Shostakovich, Symphony no. 7 in C major, Opus 60, "Leningrad" (1941); Symphony no. 8 in C minor, opus 65 (1943); String Quartet no. 3 in F major, opus 73 (1946).

D.V. Pavlov, Leningrad 1941: The Blockade, trans. John Clinton Adams, foreword by Harrison E. Salisbury (1965).

Friedrich A. Hayek

Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (1944) (University of Chicago Press, 1976).

Friedrich A. Hayek, "The Use of Knowledge in Society," (1945) pp. 77-91 and other essays in Individualism and Economic Order (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1948, 1972).

Hayek's Serfdom Revisited: Essays by Economists, Philosophers and Political Scientists on "The Road to Serfdom" after 40 Years, Norman Barry et al. (Sydney: Centre for Independent Studies, 1985).

William F. Buckley, Jr., "The Road to Serfdom: The Intellectuals and Socialism," in Essays on Hayek, ed. Fritz Machlup (Hillsdale, Michigan: Hillsdale Colege Press, 1976), pp. 95-106.

John Gray, Hayek on Liberty (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984).

Roberto Rossellini

Peter Brunette, Roberto Rossellini (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

The War Trilogy of Roberto Rossellini (New York: Grossman, 1973). The filmscripts of Rossellini's three part work on the Second World War: Rome: Open City (1945), Paisan (1946), and Germany, Year Zero (1947).

Michiko Hachiya

Michiko Hachiya, Hiroshima Diary: The Journal of a Japanese Physician, August 6-September 30, 1945, trans. Werner Wells (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1955).

John Hersey

John Hersey, Hiroshima (1946) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987). The second edition has a new chapter on "The Aftermath" (1985).

Jonathan Dee, "The Art of Fiction XCII: John Hersey (Interview)," The Paris Review, Summer/Fall 1986, vol. 28, pp. 211-49.

Heinrich Böll

Heinrich Böll, And where were you, Adam? (1949-1951), trans. Leila Vennewitz (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987).

Heinrich Böll, The Train was on Time, trans. Leila Vennewitz (Harmondsworth: Penguin).

Heinrich Böll, Wanderer, kommst du nach Spa...Erzählungen (München: Deutscher Taschenbuvch Verlag, 1979).

Heinrich Böll, Als der Krieg ausbrach. Erzählungen I (München: Deutscher Taschenbuvch Verlag, 1979).

Heinrich Böll und Lew Kapelew, Warum haben wir aufeinander geschossen? (DTV, 1984). Interviews and documents about how two men came to be on opposite sides of the eastern front.

Igor Prodaniuk, The Imagery in Heinrich Böll's Novels (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag Herbert Grundmann, 1979).

W. Lee Nahrgang, "Heinrich Böll's Pacificism: Its Roots and Nature," University of Dayton Review, 1985, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 107-118.

W. Lee Nahrgang, "War in the Work of Henrich Böll," Lamar Journal of Humanities, Fall 1984, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 19-26.

W. Lee Nahrgang, "Nontraditional Features of Heinrich Böll's War Books: Innovations of a Pacifist," Studies in Twentieth Century Literatrre, Fall 1979, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 49-61.

Günter Grass

Günter Grass, The Tin Drum, trans. Ralph Mannheim (New York: Random House, 1964).

Günter Grass, Speak Out! Speeches, Open Letters, Commentaries, trans. Ralph Mannheim (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1969).

Günter Grass, On Writing and Politics 1967-1983, trans. Ralph Mannheim (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1985).

John Reddick, The "Danzig Trilogy" of Günter Grass: A Study of the Tin Drum, Cat and Mouse, the Dog Years (London: Secker and Warburg, 1975).

Critical Essays on Günter Grass, ed. Patrick O'Neil (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1987).

Michael Hollington, Günter Grass: The Writer in Pluralist Society (London: Marion Boyars, 1980).

Keith Miles, Günter Grass (London: Vision, 1975).

Andrée-Jeanne Baudrier, "Aspects du fascisme hitlérien dans deux romans allemands contemporains: Die Blechtrommel de Günter Grass et Kindheitsmuster de Christa Wolf," in Récit et histoire, ed. J. Bessière (Presses Universitaires de France, 1984).

Carl Tighe, "The Tin Drum in Poland," Journal of European Studies, March 1989, vol. 19, pp. 3-20.

R.B. Gill, "Bargaining in Good Faith: The Laughter of Vonnegut, Grass, and Kundera," Critique (Atlanta, GA), Winter 1984, vol. 25, pp. 77-91.

Masaki Kobayashi

Philip Kemp, "Kobayashi, Masaki," in The International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers. Volume 2: Directors, ed. Christopher Lyon (London: Macmillan, 1987), pp. 298-99..

Roger Manvell, Films and the Second World War (New York: Dell, 1974). A very brief mention but good on background.

Joseph Heller

Joseph Heller, Catch 22 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1961).

Critical Essays on Catch-22, ed. James Nagel ( Encino, California: Dickenson, 1974).

Stephen W. Potts, Catch-22: Antiheroic Antinovel (Boston: Twayne, 1989).

John W. Aldridge, "Catch-22 Twenty-Five Years Later," Michigan Quarterly Review, Spring 1987, vol. 26, pp. 379-86.

The Art of the Hiroshima Victims

Unforgettable Fire: Pictures Drawn by Atomic Bomb Survivors, ed. NHK, trans. Howard Schonberger et al. (Tokyo: Nippon Hoso Shupan Kyokai, 1977).

The Hiroshima Murals: The Art of Iri Maruki and Toshi Maruki, ed. John W. Dower John Jankerman (Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd, 1985).

Elem Klimov

Ian Christie, "Klimov: Perestroika in Person," Sight and Sound, Summer 1987, vol. 56, p. 156.

Review of Come and See, Mark Le Fanu, Sight and Sound, Spring 1987, vol. 56, pp. 140-1.

Studs Terkel

Studs Terkel, The "Good War": An Oral History of World War Two (New York: Ballantine Books, 1984).

Paul Fussell

Paul Fussell, Wartime (198?).

Topic 11: The Cold War and Nuclear Deterrence↩

No sooner had the war against Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire come to an end in mid-1945 than tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States arose about the rebuilding of Europe and Japan. The two countries which had been allies against Germany now became global rivals with the onset of what is called the Cold War in the late 1940s: the division of Europe into American, French, and British controlled "western" Europe and Russian controlled "eastern" Europe; the exclusion of Russia from control of defeated Japan and its territories in Asia; and the scramble to bring other nations into one's own armed camp, or at least prevent the other side from doing the same. The cold war became "hot" in the Korean peninsula in 1950 when war broke out between Russian and Chinese (communist since 1949) supported communists in the north and American supported anti-communists in the south. After some inconclusive fighting a truce was signed and Korea was divided into two countries much like the division of Europe into a communist East and a non-communist West.

George Orwell, the English socialist journalist and novelist, quickly realised the nature of the Cold War - an atmosphere of suspicion and confrontation, the presence of spies and saboteurs, the actuality or the threat of continual war, the public sacrifices that need to be made in order to maintain expenditure on arms, the use of the fear of war to keep the population under political control. All these themes are brilliantly combined in Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty Four written in 1948 just as the cold war was becoming an unpleasant fact.

Nuclear weapons quickly became part of the arsenal of the cold war. The American's monopoly was broken by the Russians (the Americans blamed Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for selling their atomic secrets to the Russians and promptly executed them - an event well covered in the documentary Atomic Café) thus beginning the nuclear arms race and with it the theory of nuclear deterrence. According this theory the possession of nuclear weapons deterred the enemy from attacking because enough weapons could be protected from an enemy to guarantee a retaliation of such destructiveness that the enemy would not contemplate it to begin with. The ultimate reductio ad absurdum of nuclear deterrence theory was the strategy of "M.A.D." or mutual assured destruction which meant that not only could one inflict great damage on an attacking enemy but even totally destroy the enemy as a functioning society. To allay public fears about nuclear weapons and the sanity of deterrence theory the United States government during the 1950s and 1960s made army training and public propaganda films which served to misinform and confuse rather than enlighten the public as to the true dangers they faced. The recent documentary film Atomic Café (1983) presents extracts from these official films to give a good idea of the spirit of the times during the height of the cold war.

Films about the Cold War and Nuclear Deterrence

Robert Altman's film about conscripted American doctors during the Korean War uses black comedy and innovative camera work to show the bloody but boring routine of army hosptial life and to criticise the mindless and irritating discipline of the military. M*A*S*H* is set in the Korean War but it was made in 1970 during the Vietnam War, so in some respects it is a film just as much about the latter as the former war.

Kubrick's classic satire about the insanity of nuclear deterrence is Dr Strangelove, or I how I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964) in which Kubrick brilliantly and wittily links sex, the extreme right wing fear of flouridation of the water supply and communist conspiracies, and the danger of technology getting out of control to the problem of the arms race and nuclear deterrence. Kubrick's fanciful "Doomsday Machine" has become the nuclear winter described by Carl Sagan and others.

The semi-documentary film, War Game (1964), was commissioned by the BBC to show the effects of a nuclear war on Britain. Peter Watkins had a low budget to make the film but nevertheless is able to realistically recreate the problems of civil defense, the destruction of a nuclear weapon dropped on a British city, and the difficulties of reconstructing British society afterwards. Unfortunately the BBC refused to show the film at the time, fearing that it might cause panic in their viewers, and it was not shown on the BBC until a couple of years ago.

1. Robert Altman's M*A*S*H*, TCF 1970, 116 min.

2. Stanley Kubrick's Dr Strangelove or: How I learned to stop worrying and love the bomb, Hawk Films, 1964, 102 mins.

3. Atomic Café (1983)

4. The War Game, 1966, directed by Peter Watkins, 49 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. George Orwell's vision of a society in perpetual war: Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949).

2. Nuclear Deterrence in Film: Stanley Kubrick's Dr Strangelove (1964).

3. The BBC's suppression of a realistic account of the effects of a nuclear bomb attack: Peter Watkin's War Game (1966).

4. Black comedy in Altman's M*A*S*H* (1970)

5. American propaganda and misinformation about nuclear weapons: Atomic Café (1983)

Readings on the Historical Background

The Cold War

Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (London, 1978).

André Fontaine, History of the Cold War from the October Revolution to the Korean War, 1917-1950 trans. D.D. Paige (London: Secker and Warburg, 1968).

Herbert Feis, From Trust to Terror: The Onset of the Cold War, 1945-1950 (London: Anthony Blond, 1971).

D.F. Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins, 1917-1960 (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1961).

Stephen E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foerign Policy since 1938 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988).

Hugh Thomas, Armed Truce: The Beginnings of the Cold War 1945-46 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1986).

Gar Alperovitz, Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam: The Use of the Atomic Bomb and the American Confrontation with Soviet Power (New York: Vintage, 1967. Revised ed. Penguin, 1985).

Communist Power in Europe 1944-1949, ed. Martin McCauley (London: Macmillan, 1979).

Cold War Critics: Alternatives to American Foreign Policy in the Truman Years, ed. Thomas G. Peason (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971).

Joyce and Gabriel Kolko, The Limits of Power: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945-1954 (New York: Harper and Row, 1972).

Gabriel Kolko, The Politics of War: The World and United States Foreign Policy, 1943-1945 (New York: Vintage, 1970).

Containment and Revolution, ed. David Horowitz (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968).

Richard M. Freeland, The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism: Foerign Policy, Domestic Politics, and Internal Security 1946-1948 (New York: Schocken Books, 1974).

Fred Halliday, The Making of the Second Cold War (London: Verso, 1983).

The Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947: A Historical Problem with Interpretations and Documents, ed. Walter Lafeber (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971).

The Korean War

I.F. Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War (1952).

Max Hastings, The Korean War (London: Michael Joseph, 1987).

Jon Halliday and Bruce Cummings, Korea: The Unknown War (Penguin, Viking, 1988).

Peter Lowe, The Origins of the Korean War (London: Longman, 1986).

The Origins of the Cold War in Asia, ed. Y. Nagai and A. Iriye (Tokyo, 1977).

Donald Knox The Korean War: Pusan to Chosen. An Oral History (Orlando, Florida: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985).

Crisis in Korea, ed. Gavan McCormack and John Gittings (London: Spokesman Books, 1977).

Without Parallel: The American-Korean Relationship Since 1945, ed. Frank Baldwin (New York: Pantheon, 1974).

Nuclear Deterrrence in Film

James W. Harper, "Images of Armageddon: Nuclear War in Three Mass Audience Films," in War and Peace: Perspectives in the Nuclear Age, ed. Ulrich Goebel and Otto M. Nelson, pp. 25-36.

Mick Broderick, Nuclear Movies: A Filmography (Northcote, Victoria: Post-Modem Publishing, 1988).

Readings on Individual Responses to War

George Orwell

George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four: A Novel (1949) (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966).

Murray N. Rothbard, "George Orwell and the Cold War: A Reconsideration," in Reflections on America, 1984: An Orwell Symposium, ed. Robert Mulvihill (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), pp. 5-14.

C. Fleay and M.L. Sanders, "Looking into the Abyss: George Orwell at the BBC," Journal of Contemporary History, 1989, vol. 24, pp. 503-18.

William Steinhoff, George Orwell and the Origins of 1984 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975).

Orwell: The War Commentaries.

Orwell: The War Broadcasts, ed. W.J. West (London: Duckworth, BBC, 1985).

Bernard Crick, "Critical Introduction" to George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), pp. 1-136.

George Kateb, "The Road to 1948," Political Science Quarterly, December 1966, vol. 81, pp.564-80.

Bernard Crick, George Orwell: A Life (London: Secker and Warburg, 1980).

The World of George Orwell, ed. Miriam Gross (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1971).

Ian Slater, Orwell: The Road to Airstrip One (New York: W.W.Norton, 1985).

George Orwell: The Critical Heritage, ed. Jeffrey Meyers (London: Routledge, 1975).

George Orweel: An Annotated Bibliography of Criticism, ed. Jeffrey and Valerie Meyers (New York: Garland, 1977).

On Nineteen Eighty-Four, ed. Peter Stansky (Stanford: Stanford Alumni Association - The Portable Stanford, 1983). Part II "War is Peace," articles by Craig, Drell, Abrahams, Stansky.

Irving Howe, Politics and the Novel (New York, 1957).

Orwell's 1984: Text, Sources, Criticism (New York: Harbrace, 1963).

Martin Kessler, "Power and the Perfect State: A Study in Disillusionment as Reflected in Orwell's 1984 and Huxley's Brave New World," Political Science Quarterly, 1957, vol. 72, pp. 565-77.

George Woodcock, The Crystal Spirit: A Study of George Orwell (Boston, 1966).

Patrick Reilly, George Orwell: The Age's Adversary (London: Macmillan, 1986).

Averil Gardner, George Orwell (Boston: Twayne, 1988).

Christopher Hollis, A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works (London: Hollis and Carter, 1956).

Twentieth Century Interpetations of "1984", ed. Samuel Hynes (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1971).

The Future of "Nineteen Eight Four", ed. Ejner J. Jensen (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984).

Stanley Kubrick's Dr Strangelove

See the reading on Kubrick in topic 8.

The film "Dr Strangelove" is based on a novel by Peter George, Red Alert. (1963) reprinted as Dr Strangelove Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (Oxford University Press, 1988).

Gene D. Phillips, "Dr Strangelove or: How I learned to stop worrying and love the bomb," The Intenational Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers, ed. Christopher Lyon, vol. 1 Films, pp. 125-6. Contains a good bibliography.

Thomas Allen Nelson, Kubrick: Inside a Film Artist's Maze (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), "Dr Strangelove: The Descent of Man," pp. 79-98.

Alexander Walker, Stanley Kubrick Directs (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971), "Dr Strangelove, Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb," pp. 156-221.

Robert Phillip Kolker, A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Scorsese, Spielberg, Altman (New York: Oxford University Press, Second Edition 1988).

George W. Linden, " Dr Strangelove," in Nuclear War Films, ed. Jack G. Shaheen (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978), pp. 59-67.

Charles Maland, "Dr Strangelove: Nightmare Comedy and the Ideology of Liberal Consensus," American Quarterly, Winter 1979, pp. 697-717.

Peter Watkins

Peter Watkins, "The Fear of Commitment," Literature/Film Quarterly, 1983, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 221-33.

Ken Nolley, "The Collapse of Watkins' Nuclear War Film," Literature/Film Quarterly, 1983, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 234-6.

Ina Rae Hark, "On Eyewitnessing History: The Compromised Spectator in Peter Watkins's Culloden," The South Atlantic Quarterly, Summer 1985, vol. 84, pp. 294-301.

Robert Altman's "M*A*S*H*"

Clyde Kelly Dunagan, "M*A*S*H*," The International Dictionatry of Films and Filmmakers. Volume 1: Films (London: Macmillan, 1987), pp. 284-5. Contains a good bibliography.

Richard Hooker, M*A*S*H* the novel on which the film was based.

Robert Phillip Kolker, A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Scorsese, Spielberg, Altman (New York: Oxford University Press, Second Edition 1988).

Topic 12: The Vietnam War (1965-1975)↩

It has taken a long time for Americans to begin to come to terms with the Vietnam War. For many Americans it was their greatest military defeat since Pearl Harbor; for veterans it was a war which Americans wanted to forget even before it was over; for others who opposed American intervention it was an unjust and brutal war of aggression against a much smaller, poorer and weaker Third World nation.

Vietnam has a long history of colonialism, war and foreign occupation beginning with the Chinese, then the French in the late 19th century, the occupation of the Japanese during the Second World War, the reoccupation by the French after 1945 (with considerable American assistance), and finally the invasion by American combat troops in large numbers after 1965. The nationalist and communist Vietnamese forces (not always the same group) have in turn fought against all three occupying powers with final "victory" coming with the defeat and withdrawal of the Americans from Saigon in 1975.

Although American "advisors" had been present in Vietnam since the 1950s the real build-up of American ground forces began in 1965 and reached a peak in 1968 of well over 500,000 men. Most of these men were conscripts, typically poor southern whites and urban blacks who could not get excemptions from their draft boards (such as going to college). Their story of the war is told by two journalists Mark Baker and Michael Herr who give a graphic account of what it was like to be in Vietnam at that time. Terry provides insights into the experience of the black soldiers in Bloods (1984).

For a long time the war in Vietnam was ignored by the American public who neither knew much about nor was interested in foreign wars until the student protest movement and the gradual arrival of the 50,000 dead soldiers brought it to their attention. One way the war was brought to public attention, especially to the young, were the protest songs of a small number of politically committed popular song writers and singers such as Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Phil Ochs to mention only a few. I will play a selection of these protest songs in one of the lectures. Joan Baez was the most committed of the political song writers and singers and her autobiographies reveal that her opposition to the war in Vietnam was based on a strong philosophical platform.

Films about Vietnam

Only quite recently have many films been made about the Vietnam War. There is still to be made a film about Vietnam like the 1930 version of All Quiet on the Western Front in which young American actors play the role of their enemy. All films about the war continue to show the effects on American soldiers alone (sometimes extended to American society at large) as if the death and suffering of the Vietnamese peasants had never occured or was of no consequence.

I have selected a range of films to show you, beginning with the very right-wing movie directed by and starring John Wayne, The Green Berets (1968). For John Wayne, and many Americans, the war in Vietnam was an extension of the war against the American Indians, part of the American destiny of territorial expansion and its "civilising" mission. The release of Wayne's film was greeted by public protests by people who reacted against its crude version of events.

Oliver Stone is one of the few veterans who have served in Vietnam and made a film of their experiences: Platoon (1986). Stone excels in recreating what it must have been like for young Americans to be in the jungle facing an unseen and frightening enemy.

Kubrick in Full Metal Jacket presents us with his third film about war in which the the brutalising effects of basic training are well presented in the first half of the film.

1. John Wayne and Ray Kellogg, The Green Berets 1968, 141 mins.

2. Oliver Stone, Platoon 1986, 120 mins.

3. Stanley Kubrick, Full Metal Jacket 1987, 116 mins.

Tutorial Topics

Discuss the response to war of one of the following authors/artists/composers/film makers. Refer in your answer to the specific war which stimulated their response, the historical context in which they worked, and to specific passages/images/phrases to support your analysis.

1. Anti-Vietnam War protest songs of the 1960s: Bob Dylan, Phil Ochs, Joan Baez et al..

2. Mark Baker's interviews with American combat soldiers about their experiences in Vietnam: Nam: The Vietnam War in the Words of the Men and Women who fought there (1982).

3. Gung-ho Americanism: John Wayne's The Green Berets (1968).

4. Autobiography of a pacifist opponent of the Vietnam War: Joan Baez (1968, 1989).

5. An account by a New Yorker journalist: Michael Herr, Dispatches (1977).

6. The perspective of the black soldier in Vietnam: W. Terry, Bloods (1984).

7. A film about Vietnam by a veteran: Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986).

8. Kubrick's third film about war: Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987).

Readings on the Historical Background

The Vietnam War

George Esper, The Eyewitness History of the Vietnam War, 1961-1975 (New York: Ballantine, 1983).

Michael Maclear, The Ten Thousand Day War: Vietnam 1945-1975 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1982).

Gabriel Kolko, The Roots of American Foreign Policy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), "The U.S. in Vietnam, 1944-66," pp. 88-132.

Gabriel Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of War 1940-1975 (London: Unwin, 1987).

George McT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1987).

The Wars in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, 1945-1982: A Bibliographic Guide, ed. Richard Dean Burns and Milton Leitenberg (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio Information Service, 1984).

Seymour Hersh, My Lai 4: A Report on the Masacre and Its Aftermath (New York: Random House, 1970).

Seymour Hersh, Cover Up (New York: Random House, 1972).

Article in the Australian Magazine, Saturday 3 June, 1989.

Photojournalism of the Vietnam War

Felix Greene, Vietnam! Vietnam! A Penguin Special (Penguin, 1966).

Michael D. Scherer, "Vietnam War Photos and Public Opinion," Journalism Quarterly, Summer 1989, vol. 66, pp. 391-4.

Michael D. Scherer, "Comparing Magazine Photos of Vietnam and Korean Wars," Journalism Quarterly, Fall 1988, vol. 65, pp. 752-6.

The Vietnam War in Literature

Vietnam War Literature:An Annotated Bibliography of Imaginative Works About Americans Fighting in Vietnam, ed. John Newman (Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1982).

Louis A.Peake, The United States in the Vietnam War, 1954-1975: A Selected, Annotated Bibliography (New York: Garland, 1986), ch. VIII, "The Vietnam War in Literature, Film, Music, and Art," pp. 163-95.

Popular Songs against the War

A selection of anti-war protest songs:
1. Tom Lehrer, "That was the Year that was," WEA, recorded July 1965 at "The Hungry I" San Francisco: "So Long, Mom (A Song for World War III)," "Werner von Braun," "Send the Marines."
2. The Animals, "Eric Burden and the Animals," Rainbow, "Sky Pilot."
3. Bob Dylan, "Bob Dylan," ; "The Times They are a-changing," "With God on Our Side."
4. Phil Ochs, "The War is Over: The Best of Phil Ochs," A & M Records, Hollywood California, 1988," Tne War is Over," "White Boots Marching in a Yellow Land," "I Ain't marchin' Anymore."

The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock and Roll, ed. John Pareles and Patricia Romanowski (New York: Rolling Dtone Press, 1983).

The Illustrated Encylclopedia of Rock (Sydney: Lansdowne Press, 1982). Articles on Baez, Dylan, Ochs etc.

Give Peace a Chance: Music and the Struggle for Peace. A Catalogue of the Exhibition of the Peace Museum, Chicago (Chicago Review Press, 1983), ed. Marianne Philbin.

R. Serge Denisoff, "Protest Songs,: Those in the Top Forty and Those on the Street" American Quarterly, Winter 1970, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 807-823.

R. Serge Denisoff, Songs of Protest, War and Peace: A Bibliography and Discography (American Bibliographical Center-Clio Press Inc., Santa Barbara, California, 1973).

R. Serge Denisoff, Great Day Coming: Folk Music and the American Left (University of Illinois Press, 1977).

R. Serge Denisoff, Sing a Song of Social Significance (Bowling Green University Press, 1972).

The Vietnam Songbook, ed. Barbara Dane and Irwin Siller (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969).

Irwin Stambler, Encyclopedia of Rock, Pop and Soul (New York: St Martin's Press, 1974).

Jon Wiener, Give me Some Truth: John Lennon and the 60s (Random House,1984).

Jerome Rodnitzky, Minstrels of the Dawn.

Jerome Rodnitzky, "Popular Music as a Radical Influence, 1945-1970," in Essays on Radicalism in Contemporary America, ed. Leon Borden Blair (Austin: University of Texas at Arlington, 1972), pp. 3-31.

W. Hampton, Guerilla Minstrels: John Lennon, Joe Hill, Woody Guthrie, and Bob Dylan (Tennessee University Press).

The Protest Movement against the War

Lawrence M. Basker and William A. Strauss, Chance and Circumstance: The Draft, The War and the Vietnam Generation (New York: Vintage, 1978.)

Gloria Emerson, Winners and Losers: Battles, Retreats, Gains, Losses, and Ruins from a Long War (New York: Random House, 1976).

The Power of the People: Active Nonviolence in the United States, ed. Robert Cooney and Helen Michalowski (Phildelpia, Pennsylvania: New Society, 1987). Chapter 10, "The Peace Movement," pp. 182-209.

Charles Kaiser, 1968 in America. Music, Politics, Chaos, Counterculture, and the Shaping of a Generation (New York: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1988).

The Vietnam War in Film

Gilbert Adair, Vietnam on Film: From the Green Berets to Apocalypse Now (New York: Proteus, 1981). Second edition Hollywood's Vietnam: From "The Green Berets" to "Full Metal Jacket" (London: Heineman, 1989).

Andrew Britton, "American Cinema in the 70s" "Sideshows: Hollywood in Vietnam," Movie, 1981, no. 27-28, pp. 2-23.

Michael Paris, "The American Film Industry and Vietnam," History Today, April 1987, vol. 37, pp. 19-26.

"The Green Berets," in Leif Furhammar and Folke Isaksson, Politics and Film, trans. Kersti French (London: Studio Vista, 1971), pp. 145-48.

Terry Christensen, Reel Politics: American Political Movies from "Birth of a Nation" to "Platoon" (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987).

The Media and the Vietnam War: A Cultural Studies Reader, ed. Michael Klein (London: Pluto Press, 1989).

George Szamuely, "Hollywood Goes to Vietnam," Commentary, January 1988, vol. 85, pp. 48-53.

Readings on Individual Responses to War

The Experience of American Soldiers

Mark Baker, Nam: The Vietnam War in the Words of the Men and Women who fought there (London: Abacus, 1982).

Michael Herr, Dispatches (London: Picador, 1977).

W. Terry, Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (New York: Random House, 1984).

Evelyn Cobley, "Narrating the Facts of War: New Journalism in Herr's Dispatches and Documentary Realism in First World War Novels," Journal of Narrative Technique, Spring 1986, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 97-116.

Joan Baez

Joan Baez, Daybreak (1968, 1971).

Joan Baez, And A Voice to Sing With: A Memoir (Arrow: London, 1989).

David Harris and Joan Baez Harris, Coming Out, photos by Bob Fitch (New York: Pocket Books, 1971).

The Joan Baez Songbook, ed. E. Siegmeister (New York: Reyerson Music Publications, 1966.

Stanley Kubrick

On Kubrick see the reading for topics 8 and 12.

Robert Phillip Kolker, A Cinema of Loneliness: Penn, Kubrick, Scorsese, Spielberg, Altman (New York: Oxford University Press, Second Edition 1988).

Gilbert Adair, Vietnam on Film: From the Green Berets to Apocalypse Now (New York: Proteus, 1981). Second edition Hollywood's Vietnam: From "The Green Berets" to "Full Metal Jacket" (London: Heineman, 1989).

Thomas Doherty, "Full Metal Genre: Stanley Kubrick's Vietnam Combat Movie," Film Quarterly, Winter 1988/9, vol. 42, pp. 24-30.

Reviews by Pursell, Smith, Reaves, Stevenson in Literature/Film Quarterly, 1988, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 218-43.

Terrence Rafferty, "Remote Control," Sight and Sound, Autumn 1987, vol. 56, pp. 256-9.